Prevalence of workplace violence against young workers in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Workers under the age of 25 may be at particular risk for workplace violence, given their predominant employment in the high-risk retail and service industries. Little research exists, however, that estimates the scope of the problem within this population. To fill this gap, we conducted the first national study of workplace violence against young people in the United States. METHODS: We analyzed survey data collected via telephone interview from a national sample of 1031 young workers ages 14 through 24 who held a formal job in the last 12 months. Weighted frequencies were calculated and χ2 tests of significance were used to detect differences between groups. RESULTS: Many youth experience workplace violence (60%). Verbal abuse of the sort that made victims feel scared and unsafe (53%) and sexual harassment (24%) were the most commonly reported forms of violence. Females were more likely than males to experience workplace violence overall (p < 0.001) and sexual harassment (p < 0.001) in particular. Males were more likely to experience verbal abuse (p < 0.001). Workplace violence was most prevalent among workers in healthcare settings and eating and drinking places. The occupation with the highest prevalence of workplace violence was customer service. CONCLUSIONS: Workplace violence is common among young workers in the United States and more widespread than prior estimates have suggested. This study is the first to provide a true national prevalence estimate of the problem of workplace violence among young workers ages 14 to 24 in the United States. These findings should be used to locate areas of concern and target resources where they are needed most to address this significant problem.

A comparison of owner/operator and worker perspectives on workplace safety in the West Virginia logging industry.

BACKGROUND: The logging industry is known to have one of the highest rates of fatal and nonfatal occupational injuries in the United States. Perspectives on why this study is so hazardous may differ between logging company owners/operators and workers. In this study, we explored and compared the safety perspectives of logging company owners/operators and workers in West Virginia. METHODS: Using a mixed-methods approach, we analyzed survey (n = 245) and interview (n = 14) data collected in 2015 from logging company owners/operators and workers in West Virginia. Survey data were analyzed via logistic regression; interview data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Response patterns were contrasted by occupational status (owners/operators vs. workers) in both analyses. RESULTS: Owners/operators and workers agreed on several aspects of workplace safety including the importance of personal protective equipment and the benefits of mechanization when timber harvesting. Key differences observed between owners/operators and workers included why injuries are underreported and the effects of production pressures on safety. CONCLUSION: While there was much agreement, owners/operators and workers in the West Virginia logging industry reported differences in key domains of workplace safety. These differences should be taken into account when designing and implementing safety programs in the logging industry.

Occupational fatalities among young workers in the United States: 2001-2012.

BACKGROUND: While adolescent workers in the United States (US) are protected by child labor laws, they continue to suffer fatal occupational injuries. This study was designed to provide a comprehensive profile of occupational fatalities among this sub-population of US workers. METHODS: Using Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries data between 2001 and 2012, we calculated descriptive statistics and rates to examine the magnitude and nature of fatalities among workers under age 18. RESULTS: During the study period, there were 406 fatalities among young workers which translated into 24,790 years of potential life lost; 12,241 of which were in agriculture alone. Rates declined since 2001 yet Hispanics, foreign-born workers, males, and those working in agriculture continued to suffer a disproportionate fatality burden. CONCLUSIONS: Efforts to reduce young worker fatalities should focus on male Hispanics, particularly those who are foreign-born, as well as agricultural workers as these groups have the greatest fatality risks. Am. J. Ind. Med. 59:445-452, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Work-related deaths among youth: Understanding the contribution of US child labor violations.

BACKGROUND: Evidence shows that violations of the United States (US) child labor regulations are common. The main purpose of this study was to investigate the magnitude and nature of work-related deaths among youth involving violations of US child labor regulations. METHODS: We analyzed Census of Fatal Occupational Injury data from 2001 to 2012 using descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests. RESULTS: Between 2001 and 2012, 406 workers under age 18 were recorded in the CFOI as having suffered a fatal work-related injury. Among these cases, 233 were covered by the US child labor regulations. Forty-three percent of these cases involved at least one violation. The majority of cases that were not covered by the regulations involved decedents working on their family's farms (N = 139). CONCLUSIONS: Violations of federal child labor regulations are a significant contributor to work-related deaths among youth in the United States. Increased investment in enforcement is needed to prevent further young worker deaths involving child labor violations. Am. J. Ind. Med. 59:959-968, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Factors affecting high school teacher adoption, sustainability, and fidelity to the "Youth@Work: Talking Safety" curriculum.

BACKGROUND: Our objective was to identify individual- and organizational-level factors that affect high school teacher adoption, sustainability, and fidelity to the occupational safety and health curriculum, "Youth@Work: Talking Safety." METHODS: We analyzed survey data collected from 104 high school teachers across the US who were trained in the curriculum since 2004. Linear and Cox regression were used to examine bivariate associations between individual and organizational-level factors and the outcomes of interest. RESULTS: Except for perceived complexity, all individual-level factors (acceptance, enthusiasm, teaching methods fit, and self-efficacy) were associated with one or more outcomes of interest (P-values ranged from <0.001 to 0.031). Priority for non-academic courses (P = 0.035) and supportive organizational climate (P = 0.037) were the organizational-level factors associated with sustainability and number of lessons delivered, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with the literature, individual-level factors influenced teacher adoption and, to a lesser extent, sustainability, and fidelity to the Youth@Work: Talking Safety curriculum and should be considered in attempts to promote the curriculum's use in high schools.

Using death certificates and medical examiner records for adolescent occupational fatality surveillance and research: a case study.

Death certificates and medical examiner records have been useful yet imperfect data sources for work-related fatality research and surveillance among adult workers. It is unclear whether this holds for work-related fatalities among adolescent workers who suffer unique detection challenges in part because they are not often thought of as workers. This study investigated the utility of using these data sources for surveillance and research pertaining to adolescent work-related fatalities. Using the state of North Carolina as a case study, we analyzed data from the death certificates and medical examiner records of all work-related fatalities data among 11- to 17-year-olds between 1990-2008 (N = 31). We compared data sources on case identification, of completeness, and consistency information. Variables examined included those on the injury (e.g., means), occurrence (e.g., place), demographics, and employment (e.g., occupation). Medical examiner records (90%) were more likely than death certificates (71%) to identify adolescent work-related fatalities. Data completeness was generally high yet varied between sources. The most marked difference being that in medical examiner records, type of business/industry and occupation were complete in 72 and 67% of cases, respectively, while on the death certificates these fields were complete in 90 and 97% of cases, respectively. Taking the two sources together, each field was complete in upward of 94% of cases. Although completeness was high, data were not always of good quality and sometimes conflicted across sources. In many cases, the decedent's occupation was misclassified as "student" and their employer as "school" on the death certificate. Even though each source has its weaknesses, medical examiner records and death certificates, especially when used together, can be useful for conducting surveillance and research on adolescent work-related fatalities. However, extra care is needed by data recorders to ensure that occupation and employer are properly coded when dealing with adolescent worker deaths.

Work-related fatalities among youth ages 11-17 in North Carolina, 1990-2008.

BACKGROUND: Local and national surveillance systems are in place that identify occupational deaths. However, due to certain restrictions, they are limited in their ability to accurately count these deaths among adolescent workers. METHODS: In this population-based study, we relied on primary data from the North Carolina medical examiner system to identify and describe all work-related fatalities among North Carolina youth under age 18 between 1990 and 2008. RESULTS: We identified 31 work-related deaths among youth ages 11-17. The majority occurred between 1990 and 1999. Most occurred in construction and agriculture. Vehicles and guns were responsible for the majority of deaths. CONCLUSIONS: Although the prevalence of adolescent work-related fatalities has seen a decline in North Carolina, the 31 deaths we detected signal a failure of the systems in place to prevent young worker fatalities. More remains to be done to protect the lives of adolescent workers.

Hazardous task recognition among U.S. adolescents working in the retail or service industry.

BACKGROUND: Although the hazardous tasks adolescent workers perform in service and retail industries are well documented, little is known about the extent to which young workers recognize these tasks as hazardous or dangerous. METHODS: Using data from a nationally representative cross-sectional telephone survey conducted in 2003, we examined hazardous task recognition among 858 adolescents working in the retail or service industry. RESULTS: Approximately 13% (n = 123) of respondents reported that they consider at least one of their job tasks to be hazardous or dangerous. Among the respondents who performed tasks known to be hazardous, very few actually recognized these tasks as being hazardous or dangerous. CONCLUSION: Working adolescents appear to underestimate the dangers associated with work, thus increasing the potential likelihood of injury. Emphasis should be placed on eliminating or reducing hazards in the workplace while simultaneously improving young workers' recognition of the hazardous nature of many of the tasks they perform.

Exploring differences in the workplace violence experiences of young workers in middle and late adolescence in the United States.

PROBLEM: Young workers, typically characterized as 15-24 years of age, are commonly employed in jobs where the risk of workplace violence is high. It is unknown how these young workers, at varying stages of development, might understand and respond to workplace violence differently. We set out to explore whether the experiences and understandings of young workers varied between those in middle (ages 15-17) and late (ages 18-24) adolescence. METHOD: Separate focus groups were conducted with working students (n = 31), ages 15-17 and ages 18-24, who had either experienced or witnessed workplace violence. A focus group guide was used to facilitate the sessions which were recorded, transcribed, and content analyzed for themes. RESULTS: Those in the older group experienced more severe episodes of sexual harassment and physical assault, reported using formal mechanisms for reporting, and noticed an employer focus on customer satisfaction over employee safety, while the younger participants tended to report to their parents. Both groups reported negative effects of experiencing workplace violence including depression, anxiety, feelings of worthlessness, and spill over into personal life. DISCUSSION: Findings suggest that young workers at different developmental stages may experience and respond to workplace violence differently. Further research is needed to see if these results are generalizable. SUMMARY: It is imperative that we understand the distinct differences between these subsets of young workers and how they experience and respond to workplace violence in order to improve research, policy development, and prevention/intervention mechanisms. Practical Applications: Understanding that differences exist among young workers based on age due to developmental stage, lack of experience, education, and social awareness can enable employers, companies, policy makers, and researchers the opportunity to better address the issue of workplace violence in this population.

Essential Elements for Effective Safety and Health Education in Postsecondary Construction Career Technical Education.

Because Career Technical Education (CTE) programs at the community/technical college level are among the few places new construction workers receive training or preparation, they are an important vehicle for educating new and young workers about occupational health and safety (OSH). We developed recommendations for (1) OSH "core competencies" that all postsecondary construction students should achieve and (2) "essential elements" for OSH education in construction training programs. Based on a review of the literature, subject matter expert focus groups, and iterative engagement with an expert advisory group, we identified fourteen core competencies and a list of essential supporting elements at the school, program, and instructor levels. Knowledge and recognition of the importance of effective safety and health management systems served as the foundation for elements and competencies. Findings provide an important starting point for systematically improving the preparation of construction CTE students that can help keep them safe on the job.

US child labor violations in the retail and service industries: findings from a national survey of working adolescents.

OBJECTIVES: We investigated child labor violations among US adolescents working in the retail and service industries. METHODS: We used interview data from a nationally representative sample of working adolescents, and investigated reports of select child labor violations (e.g., hours, equipment, and work permits). We computed weighted percentages of respondents reporting each type of discrete (and aggregated) violation. RESULTS: Nearly 37% of respondents reported a violation of the hazardous occupations orders (i.e., prohibited jobs or use of equipment), and 40% reported a work permit violation. Fewer than 2% reported working more than the maximum weekly hours allowed during the school year, but 11% reported working past the latest hour allowed on a school night, and 15% reported working off the clock. CONCLUSIONS: Significant numbers of US adolescents are employed in violation of the child labor laws and as a result are exposed to safety risks. Although our data did not allow for an analysis of enforcement, our findings demonstrate gaps in employer compliance with the law. We suggest that closer attention to enforcement policy and practice is needed.

Workplace violence against adolescent workers in the US.

BACKGROUND: Workplace violence is a significant problem yet most research on this topic has focused on adults. Despite facing numerous employment conditions that raise their risk for workplace violence, adolescent workers have received inadequate attention. METHODS: Survey data from 1,171 US students ages 14-17 were analyzed using descriptive statistics to investigate the incidence and perpetrators of physical attacks, verbal threats, and sexual harassment. RESULTS: Nearly one-third of respondents experienced some form of workplace violence: 25% verbally threatened, 10% physically attacked, and 10% sexually harassed. Significant demographic differences were found. The most common perpetrators of physical attacks and verbal threats were customers while sexual harassment most often came from co-workers. CONCLUSIONS: Many working adolescents, most with only a few years work experience, have already suffered workplace violence. As youth are likely to be more vulnerable to its effects, developing workplace violence prevention strategies that target adolescent workers should be made a priority.

Teen workers' exposures to occupational hazards and use of personal protective equipment.

BACKGROUND: Prior research indicates that working adolescents seek care for the toxic effects of on-the-job chemical and environmental hazard exposures. METHODS: This cross-sectional survey of a nationally representative sample of 866 adolescent workers in the retail and service sector examines their exposures, personal protective equipment (PPE) use, and training. RESULTS: Two-thirds of respondents were exposed to continuous, very loud noise, 55% to thermal hazards and 54% to chemical hazards. Few teens reported using any PPE, though those who had been trained reported somewhat higher usage. CONCLUSIONS: Teens working in the retail and service sectors experience a variety of chemical, thermal, biologic and noise exposures. Efforts to eradicate such exposures need to be complemented by increased provision of PPE and appropriate training in their use by employers.

Risk Perceptions of Cellphone Use While Driving: Results from a Delphi Survey.

Cellphone use while driving has been recognized as a growing and important public health issue by the World Health Organization and U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Surveys typically collect data on overall texting while driving, but do not differentiate between various forms of cellphone use. This study sought to improve the survey indicators when monitoring cellphone use among young drivers. Experts and young drivers were recruited to propose behavioral indicators (cellphone use while driving behaviors) and consequential indicators (safety consequences of cellphone use while driving) in 2016. Subsequently, experts and young drivers selected the top indicators using the Delphi survey method. We enrolled 22 experts with published articles on cellphone use while driving nationally, and seven young drivers who were freshmen at a state university. Sending a text or e-mail on a handheld phone was picked as the top behavioral indicator by both groups. However, young drivers chose playing music on a handheld phone as the second most important behavioral indicator, which was overlooked by experts. Injury/death and collision were the top two consequential indicators. Experts and young drivers identified the important survey indicators to monitor cellphone use while driving.

Fatal Work-Related Injuries: Southeastern United States, 2008-2011.

In 2008, the work-related injury fatality rate was 3.8 per 100,000 workers in the United States but was 5.2 per 100,000 workers for the southeast region. Work-related fatalities in the southeast were examined for the period 2008 to 2011. Median work-related injury fatality rates are reported for the southeast region, each of the 12 states, and the United States. The percentages of employees in high fatality industries and work-related fatalities by cause were calculated. Finally, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration's database was searched for fatality reports. States with the highest rates (per 100,000 workers) included Arkansas (7.2), Louisiana (6.8), and West Virginia (6.6). Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and West Virginia each had more than 20% of their employees in high fatality industries. Forty percent of work-related injury fatalities were from transportation incidents in the southeast and the United States. Future analyses should include work-related injury fatality rates by industry and compare rates with other U.S. regions.

A validity study of self-reported daily texting frequency, cell phone characteristics, and texting styles among young adults.

BACKGROUND: Texting is associated with adverse health effects including musculoskeletal disorders, sleep disturbances, and traffic crashes. Many studies have relied on self-reported texting frequency, yet the validity of self-reports is unknown. Our objective was to provide some of the first data on the validity of self-reported texting frequency, cell phone characteristics including input device (e.g. touchscreen), key configuration (e.g., QWERTY), and texting styles including phone orientation (e.g., horizontal) and hands holding the phone while texting. METHODS: Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire and observation of a texting task among college students ages 18 to 24. To gauge agreement between self-reported and phone bill-derived categorical number of daily text messages sent, we calculated percent of agreement, Spearman correlation coefficient, and a linear weighted kappa statistic. For agreement between self-reported and observed cell phone characteristics and texting styles we calculated percentages of agreement. We used chi-square tests to detect significant differences (α = 0.05) by gender and study protocol. RESULTS: There were 106 participants; 87 of which had complete data for texting frequency analyses. Among these 87, there was 26% (95% CI: 21-31) agreement between self-reported and phone bill-derived number of daily text messages sent with a Spearman's rho of 0.48 and a weighted kappa of 0.17 (95% CI: 0.06-0.27). Among those who did not accurately report the number of daily texts sent, 81% overestimated this number. Among the full sample (n = 106), there was high agreement between self-reported and observed texting input device (96%, 95% CI: 91-99), key configuration (89%, 95% CI: 81-94), and phone orientation while texting (93%, 95% CI: 86-97). No differences were found by gender or study protocol among any items. CONCLUSIONS: While young adults correctly reported their cell phone's characteristics and phone orientation while texting, most incorrectly estimated the number of daily text messages they sent. This suggests that while self-reported texting frequency may be useful for studies where relative ordering is adequate, it should not be used in epidemiologic studies to identify a risk threshold. For these studies, it is recommended that a less biased measure, such as a cell phone bill, be utilized.

Occupational health literacy and work-related injury among U.S. adolescents.

Building on the concept of 'health literacy' used in the U.S., we developed an analogous measure specific to safety in the workplace labeled 'occupational health literacy' (OHL) and investigated whether OHL is a protective factor against work-related injury (WRI) among adolescents. Using cross-sectional survey data from 2262 14 to 18-year olds in five high schools across the US, we found that OHL (level of occupational safety and health (OSH) information and training received combined with knowledge and awareness of OSH information and concepts) is positively associated with WRI prevalence. This association appears to be largely driven by the OHL subscale on respondents' receipt of safety training, which likely represents job hazardousness and may be overwhelming any protective effect of OHL on work injury. This exploratory study has shown that more precise measurement of OHL and confounding variables (job hazardousness) will be crucial in further studies exploring a OHL-WRI relationship.

Adolescent occupational fatalities in North Carolina (1990-2008): an investigation of child labor and OSHA violations and enforcement.

This study investigated adolescent worker fatalities involving violations of the child labor laws and/or Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards, as well as the enforcement activity involved in each case. Medical examiner records were used to identify work-related deaths among adolescents ages 11-17 between 1990 and 2008 and child labor violations. Investigations from state and federal Departments of Labor (DOL) were used to determine inspection activity, identify OSHA violations, and confirm child labor violations. Fifty-two percent of cases involved one or more child labor violations. Nine cases were investigated by either the U.S. or North Carolina DOL; among them, four had child labor violations. Eleven cases were investigated by the North Carolina DOL and all involved OSHA violations. Significant child labor and OSHA violations exist in adolescent worker fatalities in North Carolina, and gaps exist in enforcement at both the federal and state level, signaling needed improvements in the protection of adolescent workers.

Setting an agenda for advancing young worker safety in the U.S. and Canada.

Scholars and practitioners from multiple perspectives, including developmental science, sociology, business, medicine, and public health, have considered the implications of employment for young people. We summarize a series of meetings designed to synthesize information from these perspectives and derive recommendations to guide research, practice, and policy with a focus on young worker safety and health. During the first three meetings, participants from the United States and Canada considered invited white papers addressing developmental issues, public health data and findings, as well as programmatic advances and evaluation needs. At the final meeting, the participants recommended both research and policy directions to advance understanding and improve young worker safety.

Young worker safety in construction: do family ties and workgroup size affect hazard exposures and safety practices?

OBJECTIVE: Little is known about how social aspects of the work environment influence exposures or safety practices affecting young construction workers. Our objective was to investigate whether working on a construction site with a small number of workers (≤10 vs. 11-50) or having a family-firm connection (working in a family-owned firm or one in which a family member also works) impacts hazard exposures and safety practices. PARTICIPANTS: Participants included 187 North Carolina construction workers 14 to 17 years old who were surveyed about their jobs. METHODS: We conducted stratified analyses using cross-tabulations and chi-square statistics to measure associations between workgroup size (i.e., the total number of workers on a jobsite) and family-firm connections (yes/no) and hazard exposures (e.g., saws) and safety practices (e.g., supervision). RESULTS: Having a family-firm connection was associated with fewer hazard exposures and greater safety practices. Youth who worked on jobsites with a larger workgroup (11-50 workers) reported more hazards but also more safety practices. CONCLUSIONS: Family-firm connections, in particular, may have a protective effect for youth in construction. Even though the statistical significance of our findings on workgroup size was limited in places, the pattern of differences found suggest that further research in this area is warranted.