Allogeneic immunity clears latent virus following allogeneic stem cell transplantation in SIV-infected ART-suppressed macaques.

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (alloHSCT) from donors lacking C-C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5Δ32/Δ32) can cure HIV, yet mechanisms remain speculative. To define how alloHSCT mediates HIV cure, we performed MHC-matched alloHSCT in SIV+, anti-retroviral therapy (ART)-suppressed Mauritian cynomolgus macaques (MCMs) and demonstrated that allogeneic immunity was the major driver of reservoir clearance, occurring first in peripheral blood, then peripheral lymph nodes, and finally in mesenteric lymph nodes draining the gastrointestinal tract. While allogeneic immunity could extirpate the latent viral reservoir and did so in two alloHSCT-recipient MCMs that remained aviremic >2.5 years after stopping ART, in other cases, it was insufficient without protection of engrafting cells afforded by CCR5-deficiency, as CCR5-tropic virus spread to donor CD4+ T cells despite full ART suppression. These data demonstrate the individual contributions of allogeneic immunity and CCR5 deficiency to HIV cure and support defining targets of alloimmunity for curative strategies independent of HSCT.

Suppression of human and simian immunodeficiency virus replication with the CCR5-specific antibody Leronlimab in two species.

The CCR5-specific antibody Leronlimab is being investigated as a novel immunotherapy that can suppress HIV replication with minimal side effects. Here we studied the virological and immunological consequences of Leronlimab in chronically CCR5-tropic HIV-1 infected humans (n = 5) on suppressive antiretroviral therapy (ART) and in ART-naïve acutely CCR5-tropic SHIV infected rhesus macaques (n = 4). All five human participants transitioned from daily combination ART to self-administered weekly subcutaneous (SC) injections of 350 mg or 700 mg Leronlimab and to date all participants have sustained virologic suppression for over seven years. In all participants, Leronlimab fully occupied CCR5 receptors on peripheral blood CD4+ T cells and monocytes. In ART-naïve rhesus macaques acutely infected with CCR5-tropic SHIV, weekly SC injections of 50 mg/kg Leronlimab fully suppressed plasma viremia in half of the macaques. CCR5 receptor occupancy by Leronlimab occurred concomitant with rebound of CD4+ CCR5+ T-cells in peripheral blood, and full CCR5 receptor occupancy was found in multiple anatomical compartments. Our results demonstrate that weekly, self-administered Leronlimab was safe, well-tolerated, and efficacious for long-term virologic suppression and should be included in the arsenal of safe, easily administered, longer-acting antiretroviral treatments for people living with HIV-1. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifiers: NCT02175680 and NCT02355184.

Identification and Characterization of Antigen-Specific CD8+ T Cells Using Surface-Trapped TNF-α and Single-Cell Sequencing.

CD8+ T cells are key mediators of antiviral and antitumor immunity. The isolation and study of Ag-specific CD8+ T cells, as well as mapping of their MHC restriction, has practical importance to the study of disease and the development of therapeutics. Unfortunately, most experimental approaches are cumbersome, owing to the highly variable and donor-specific nature of MHC-bound peptide/TCR interactions. Here we present a novel system for rapid identification and characterization of Ag-specific CD8+ T cells, particularly well suited for samples with limited primary cells. Cells are stimulated ex vivo with Ag of interest, followed by live cell sorting based on surface-trapped TNF-α. We take advantage of major advances in single-cell sequencing to generate full-length sequence data from the paired TCR α- and ß-chains from these Ag-specific cells. The paired TCR chains are cloned into retroviral vectors and used to transduce donor CD8+ T cells. These TCR transductants provide a virtually unlimited experimental reagent, which can be used for further characterization, such as minimal epitope mapping or identification of MHC restriction, without depleting primary cells. We validated this system using CMV-specific CD8+ T cells from rhesus macaques, characterizing an immunodominant Mamu-A1*002:01-restricted epitope. We further demonstrated the utility of this system by mapping a novel HLA-A*68:02-restricted HIV Gag epitope from an HIV-infected donor. Collectively, these data validate a new strategy to rapidly identify novel Ags and characterize Ag-specific CD8+ T cells, with applications ranging from the study of infectious disease to immunotherapeutics and precision medicine.

The human IL-15 superagonist N-803 promotes migration of virus-specific CD8+ T and NK cells to B cell follicles but does not reverse latency in ART-suppressed, SHIV-infected macaques.

Despite the success of antiretroviral therapy (ART) to halt viral replication and slow disease progression, this treatment is not curative and there remains an urgent need to develop approaches to clear the latent HIV reservoir. The human IL-15 superagonist N-803 (formerly ALT-803) is a promising anti-cancer biologic with potent immunostimulatory properties that has been extended into the field of HIV as a potential "shock and kill" therapeutic for HIV cure. However, the ability of N-803 to reactivate latent virus and modulate anti-viral immunity in vivo under the cover of ART remains undefined. Here, we show that in ART-suppressed, simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV)SF162P3-infected rhesus macaques, subcutaneous administration of N-803 activates and mobilizes both NK cells and SHIV-specific CD8+ T cells from the peripheral blood to lymph node B cell follicles, a sanctuary site for latent virus that normally excludes such effector cells. We observed minimal activation of memory CD4+ T cells and no increase in viral RNA content in lymph node resident CD4+ T cells post N-803 administration. Accordingly, we found no difference in the number or magnitude of plasma viremia timepoints between treated and untreated animals during the N-803 administration period, and no difference in the size of the viral DNA cell-associated reservoir post N-803 treatment. These results substantiate N-803 as a potent immunotherapeutic candidate capable of activating and directing effector CD8+ T and NK cells to the B cell follicle during full ART suppression, and suggest N-803 must be paired with a bona fide latency reversing agent in vivo to facilitate immune-mediated modulation of the latent viral reservoir.

MHC-E-Restricted CD8+ T Cells Target Hepatitis B Virus-Infected Human Hepatocytes.

Currently 247 million people are living with chronic hepatitis B virus infection (CHB), and the development of novel curative treatments is urgently needed. Immunotherapy is an attractive approach to treat CHB, yet therapeutic approaches to augment the endogenous hepatitis B virus (HBV)-specific T cell response in CHB patients have demonstrated little success. In this study, we show that strain 68-1 rhesus macaque (RM) CMV vaccine vectors expressing HBV Ags engender HBV-specific CD8+ T cells unconventionally restricted by MHC class II and the nonclassical MHC-E molecule in RM. Surface staining of human donor and RM primary hepatocytes (PH) ex vivo revealed the majority of PH expressed MHC-E but not MHC class II. HBV-specific, MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells from RM vaccinated with RM CMV vaccine vectors expressing HBV Ags recognized HBV-infected PH from both human donor and RM. These results provide proof-of-concept that MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells could be harnessed for the treatment of CHB, either through therapeutic vaccination or adoptive immunotherapy.

Vaccine-Mediated Inhibition of the Transporter Associated with Antigen Processing Is Insufficient To Induce Major Histocompatibility Complex E-Restricted CD8+ T Cells in Nonhuman Primates.

Major histocompatibility complex E (MHC-E) is a highly conserved nonclassical MHC-Ib molecule that tightly binds peptides derived from leader sequences of classical MHC-Ia molecules for presentation to natural killer cells. However, MHC-E also binds diverse foreign and neoplastic self-peptide antigens for presentation to CD8+ T cells. Although the determinants of MHC-E-restricted T cell priming remain unknown, these cells are induced in humans infected with pathogens containing genes that inhibit the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). Indeed, mice vaccinated with TAP-inhibited autologous dendritic cells develop T cells restricted by the murine MHC-E homologue, Qa-1b. Here, we tested whether rhesus macaques (RM) vaccinated with viral constructs expressing a TAP inhibitor would develop insert-specific MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells. We generated viral constructs coexpressing SIVmac239 Gag in addition to one of three TAP inhibitors: herpes simplex virus 2 ICP47, bovine herpes virus 1 UL49.5, or rhesus cytomegalovirus Rh185. Each TAP inhibitor reduced surface expression of MHC-Ia molecules but did not reduce surface MHC-E expression. In agreement with modulation of surface MHC-Ia levels, TAP inhibition diminished presentation of MHC-Ia-restricted CD8+ T cell epitopes without impacting presentation of peptide antigen bound by MHC-E. Vaccination of macaques with vectors dually expressing SIVmac239 Gag with ICP47, UL49.5, or Rh185 generated Gag-specific CD8+ T cells classically restricted by MHC-Ia but not MHC-E. These data demonstrate that, in contrast to results in mice, TAP inhibition alone is insufficient for priming of MHC-E-restricted T cell responses in primates and suggest that additional unknown mechanisms govern the induction of CD8+ T cells recognizing MHC-E-bound antigen.IMPORTANCE Due to the near monomorphic nature of MHC-E in the human population and inability of many pathogens to inhibit MHC-E-mediated peptide presentation, MHC-E-restricted T cells have become an attractive vaccine target. However, little is known concerning how these cells are induced. Understanding the underlying mechanisms that induce these T cells would provide a powerful new vaccine strategy to an array of neoplasms and viral and bacterial pathogens. Recent studies have indicated a link between TAP inhibition and induction of MHC-E-restricted T cells. The significance of our research is in demonstrating that TAP inhibition alone does not prime MHC-E-restricted T cell generation and suggests that other, currently unknown mechanisms regulate their induction.

Viral opportunistic infections in Mauritian cynomolgus macaques undergoing allogeneic stem cell transplantation mirror human transplant infectious disease complications.

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) and xenotransplantation are accompanied by viral reactivations and virus-associated complications resulting from immune deficiency. Here, in a Mauritian cynomolgus macaque model of fully MHC-matched allogeneic HSCT, we report reactivations of cynomolgus polyomavirus, lymphocryptovirus, and cytomegalovirus, macaque viruses analogous to HSCT-associated human counterparts BK virus, Epstein-Barr virus, and human cytomegalovirus. Viral replication in recipient macaques resulted in characteristic disease manifestations observed in HSCT patients, such as polyomavirus-associated hemorrhagic cystitis and tubulointerstitial nephritis or lymphocryptovirus-associated post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder. However, in most cases, the reconstituted immune system, alone or in combination with short-term pharmacological intervention, exerted control over viral replication, suggesting engraftment of functional donor-derived immunity. Indeed, the donor-derived reconstituted immune systems of two long-term engrafted HSCT recipient macaques responded to live attenuated yellow fever 17D vaccine (YFV 17D) indistinguishably from untransplanted controls, mounting 17D-targeted neutralizing antibody responses and clearing YFV 17D within 14 days. Together, these data demonstrate that this macaque model of allogeneic HSCT recapitulates clinical situations of opportunistic viral infections in transplant patients and provides a pre-clinical model to test novel prophylactic and therapeutic modalities.

The Role of MHC-E in T Cell Immunity Is Conserved among Humans, Rhesus Macaques, and Cynomolgus Macaques.

MHC-E is a highly conserved nonclassical MHC class Ib molecule that predominantly binds and presents MHC class Ia leader sequence-derived peptides for NK cell regulation. However, MHC-E also binds pathogen-derived peptide Ags for presentation to CD8+ T cells. Given this role in adaptive immunity and its highly monomorphic nature in the human population, HLA-E is an attractive target for novel vaccine and immunotherapeutic modalities. Development of HLA-E-targeted therapies will require a physiologically relevant animal model that recapitulates HLA-E-restricted T cell biology. In this study, we investigated MHC-E immunobiology in two common nonhuman primate species, Indian-origin rhesus macaques (RM) and Mauritian-origin cynomolgus macaques (MCM). Compared to humans and MCM, RM expressed a greater number of MHC-E alleles at both the population and individual level. Despite this difference, human, RM, and MCM MHC-E molecules were expressed at similar levels across immune cell subsets, equivalently upregulated by viral pathogens, and bound and presented identical peptides to CD8+ T cells. Indeed, SIV-specific, Mamu-E-restricted CD8+ T cells from RM recognized antigenic peptides presented by all MHC-E molecules tested, including cross-species recognition of human and MCM SIV-infected CD4+ T cells. Thus, MHC-E is functionally conserved among humans, RM, and MCM, and both RM and MCM represent physiologically relevant animal models of HLA-E-restricted T cell immunobiology.

TIGIT Marks Exhausted T Cells, Correlates with Disease Progression, and Serves as a Target for Immune Restoration in HIV and SIV Infection.

HIV infection induces phenotypic and functional changes to CD8+ T cells defined by the coordinated upregulation of a series of negative checkpoint receptors that eventually result in T cell exhaustion and failure to control viral replication. We report that effector CD8+ T cells during HIV infection in blood and SIV infection in lymphoid tissue exhibit higher levels of the negative checkpoint receptor TIGIT. Increased frequencies of TIGIT+ and TIGIT+ PD-1+ CD8+ T cells correlated with parameters of HIV and SIV disease progression. TIGIT remained elevated despite viral suppression in those with either pharmacological antiretroviral control or immunologically in elite controllers. HIV and SIV-specific CD8+ T cells were dysfunctional and expressed high levels of TIGIT and PD-1. Ex-vivo single or combinational antibody blockade of TIGIT and/or PD-L1 restored viral-specific CD8+ T cell effector responses. The frequency of TIGIT+ CD4+ T cells correlated with the CD4+ T cell total HIV DNA. These findings identify TIGIT as a novel marker of dysfunctional HIV-specific T cells and suggest TIGIT along with other checkpoint receptors may be novel curative HIV targets to reverse T cell exhaustion.

Cross-Species Rhesus Cytomegalovirus Infection of Cynomolgus Macaques.

Cytomegaloviruses (CMV) are highly species-specific due to millennia of co-evolution and adaptation to their host, with no successful experimental cross-species infection in primates reported to date. Accordingly, full genome phylogenetic analysis of multiple new CMV field isolates derived from two closely related nonhuman primate species, Indian-origin rhesus macaques (RM) and Mauritian-origin cynomolgus macaques (MCM), revealed distinct and tight lineage clustering according to the species of origin, with MCM CMV isolates mirroring the limited genetic diversity of their primate host that underwent a population bottleneck 400 years ago. Despite the ability of Rhesus CMV (RhCMV) laboratory strain 68-1 to replicate efficiently in MCM fibroblasts and potently inhibit antigen presentation to MCM T cells in vitro, RhCMV 68-1 failed to productively infect MCM in vivo, even in the absence of host CD8+ T and NK cells. In contrast, RhCMV clone 68-1.2, genetically repaired to express the homologues of the HCMV anti-apoptosis gene UL36 and epithelial cell tropism genes UL128 and UL130 absent in 68-1, efficiently infected MCM as evidenced by the induction of transgene-specific T cells and virus shedding. Recombinant variants of RhCMV 68-1 and 68-1.2 revealed that expression of either UL36 or UL128 together with UL130 enabled productive MCM infection, indicating that multiple layers of cross-species restriction operate even between closely related hosts. Cumulatively, these results implicate cell tropism and evasion of apoptosis as critical determinants of CMV transmission across primate species barriers, and extend the macaque model of human CMV infection and immunology to MCM, a nonhuman primate species with uniquely simplified host immunogenetics.

Acute Viral Escape Selectively Impairs Nef-Mediated Major Histocompatibility Complex Class I Downmodulation and Increases Susceptibility to Antiviral T Cells.

Nef-specific CD8(+) T lymphocytes (CD8TL) are associated with control of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) despite extensive nef variation between and within animals. Deep viral sequencing of the immunodominant Mamu-B*017:01-restricted Nef165-173IW9 epitope revealed highly restricted evolution. A common acute escape variant, T170I, unexpectedly and uniquely degraded Nef's major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) downregulatory capacity, rendering the virus more vulnerable to CD8TL targeting other epitopes. These data aid in a mechanistic understanding of Nef functions and suggest means of immunity-mediated control of lentivirus replication.

Expansion of dysfunctional Tim-3-expressing effector memory CD8+ T cells during simian immunodeficiency virus infection in rhesus macaques.

The T cell Ig- and mucin domain-containing molecule-3 (Tim-3) negative immune checkpoint receptor demarcates functionally exhausted CD8(+) T cells arising from chronic stimulation in viral infections like HIV. Tim-3 blockade leads to improved antiviral CD8(+) T cell responses in vitro and, therefore, represents a novel intervention strategy to restore T cell function in vivo and protect from disease progression. However, the Tim-3 pathway in the physiologically relevant rhesus macaque SIV model of AIDS remains uncharacterized. We report that Tim-3(+)CD8(+) T cell frequencies are significantly increased in lymph nodes, but not in peripheral blood, in SIV-infected animals. Tim-3(+)PD-1(+)CD8(+) T cells are similarly increased during SIV infection and positively correlate with SIV plasma viremia. Tim-3 expression was found primarily on effector memory CD8(+) T cells in all tissues examined. Tim-3(+)CD8(+) T cells have lower Ki-67 content and minimal cytokine responses to SIV compared with Tim-3(-)CD8(+) T cells. During acute-phase SIV replication, Tim-3 expression peaked on SIV-specific CD8(+) T cells by 2 wk postinfection and then rapidly diminished, irrespective of mutational escape of cognate Ag, suggesting non-TCR-driven mechanisms for Tim-3 expression. Thus, rhesus Tim-3 in SIV infection partially mimics human Tim-3 in HIV infection and may serve as a novel model for targeted studies focused on rejuvenating HIV-specific CD8(+) T cell responses.

Tertiary mutations stabilize CD8+ T lymphocyte escape-associated compensatory mutations following transmission of simian immunodeficiency virus.

Compensatory mutations offset fitness defects resulting from CD8(+) T lymphocyte (CD8(TL))-mediated escape, but their impact on viral evolution following transmission to naive hosts remains unclear. Here, we investigated the reversion kinetics of Gag(181-189)CM9 CD8(TL) escape-associated compensatory mutations in simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected macaques. Preexisting compensatory mutations did not result in acute-phase escape of the SIVmac239 CD8(TL) epitope Gag(181-189)CM9 and instead required a tertiary mutation for stabilization in the absence of Gag(181-189)CM9 escape mutations. Therefore, transmitted compensatory mutations do not necessarily predict rapid CD8(TL) escape.

Neutralizing polyclonal IgG present during acute infection prevents rapid disease onset in simian-human immunodeficiency virus SHIVSF162P3-infected infant rhesus macaques.

Simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) models for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection have been widely used in passive studies with HIV neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) to test for protection against infection. However, because SHIV-infected adult macaques often rapidly control plasma viremia and any resulting pathogenesis is minor, the model has been unsuitable for studying the impact of antibodies on pathogenesis in infected animals. We found that SHIVSF162P3 infection in 1-month-old rhesus macaques not only results in high persistent plasma viremia but also leads to very rapid disease progression within 12 to 16 weeks. In this model, passive transfer of high doses of neutralizing IgG (SHIVIG) prevents infection. Here, we show that at lower doses, SHIVIG reduces both plasma and peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC)-associated viremia and mitigates pathogenesis in infected animals. Moreover, production of endogenous NAbs correlated with lower set-point viremia and 100% survival of infected animals. New SHIV models are needed to investigate whether passively transferred antibodies or antibodies elicited by vaccination that fall short of providing sterilizing immunity impact disease progression or influence immune responses. The 1-month-old rhesus macaque SHIV model of infection provides a new tool to investigate the effects of antibodies on viral replication and clearance, mechanisms of B cell maintenance, and the induction of adaptive immunity in disease progression.

Vaccination with cancer- and HIV infection-associated endogenous retrotransposable elements is safe and immunogenic.

The expression of endogenous retrotransposable elements, including long interspersed nuclear element 1 (LINE-1 or L1) and human endogenous retrovirus, accompanies neoplastic transformation and infection with viruses such as HIV. The ability to engender immunity safely against such self-antigens would facilitate the development of novel vaccines and immunotherapies. In this article, we address the safety and immunogenicity of vaccination with these elements. We used immunohistochemical analysis and literature precedent to identify potential off-target tissues in humans and establish their translatability in preclinical species to guide safety assessments. Immunization of mice with murine L1 open reading frame 2 induced strong CD8 T cell responses without detectable tissue damage. Similarly, immunization of rhesus macaques with human LINE-1 open reading frame 2 (96% identity with macaque), as well as simian endogenous retrovirus-K Gag and Env, induced polyfunctional T cell responses to all Ags, and Ab responses to simian endogenous retrovirus-K Env. There were no adverse safety or pathological findings related to vaccination. These studies provide the first evidence, to our knowledge, that immune responses can be induced safely against this class of self-antigens and pave the way for investigation of them as HIV- or tumor-associated targets.

FcRn-enhancing mutations lead to increased and prolonged levels of the HIV CCR5-blocking monoclonal antibody leronlimab in the fetuses and newborns of pregnant rhesus macaques.

Prenatal administration of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is a strategy that could be exploited to prevent viral infections during pregnancy and early life. To reach protective levels in fetuses, mAbs must be transported across the placenta, a selective barrier that actively and specifically promotes the transfer of antibodies (Abs) into the fetus through the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn). Because FcRn also regulates Ab half-life, Fc mutations like the M428L/N434S, commonly known as LS mutations, and others have been developed to enhance binding affinity to FcRn and improve drug pharmacokinetics. We hypothesized that these FcRn-enhancing mutations could similarly affect the delivery of therapeutic Abs to the fetus. To test this hypothesis, we measured the transplacental transfer of leronlimab, an anti-CCR5 mAb, in clinical development for preventing HIV infections, using pregnant rhesus macaques to model in utero mAb transfer. We also generated a stabilized and FcRn-enhanced form of leronlimab, termed leronlimab-PLS. Leronlimab-PLS maintained higher levels within the maternal compartment while also reaching higher mAb levels in the fetus and newborn circulation. Further, a single dose of leronlimab-PLS led to complete CCR5 receptor occupancy in mothers and newborns for almost a month after birth. These findings support the optimization of FcRn interactions in mAb therapies designed for administration during pregnancy.

Viral escape mutations do not account for non-protection from SIVmac239 challenge in RhCMV/SIV vaccinated rhesus macaques.

Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) vaccines based upon 68-1 Rhesus Cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) vectors show remarkable protection against pathogenic SIVmac239 challenge. Across multiple independent rhesus macaque (RM) challenge studies, nearly 60% of vaccinated RM show early, complete arrest of SIVmac239 replication after effective challenge, whereas the remainder show progressive infection similar to controls. Here, we performed viral sequencing to determine whether the failure to control viral replication in non-protected RMs is associated with the acquisition of viral escape mutations. While low level viral mutations accumulated in all animals by 28 days-post-challenge, which is after the establishment of viral control in protected animals, the dominant circulating virus in virtually all unprotected RMs was nearly identical to the challenge stock, and there was no difference in mutation patterns between this cohort and unvaccinated controls. These data definitively demonstrate that viral mutation does not explain lack of viral control in RMs not protected by RhCMV/SIV vaccination. We further demonstrate that during chronic infection RhCMV/SIV vaccinated RMs do not acquire escape mutation in epitopes targeted by RhCMV/SIV, but instead display mutation in canonical MHC-Ia epitopes similar to unvaccinated RMs. This suggests that after the initial failure of viral control, unconventional T cell responses induced by 68-1 RhCMV/SIV vaccination do not exert strong selective pressure on systemically replicating SIV.

Pyrosequencing reveals restricted patterns of CD8+ T cell escape-associated compensatory mutations in simian immunodeficiency virus.

CD8+ T cells play a major role in the containment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) replication. CD8+ T cell-driven variations in conserved regions under functional constraints result in diminished viral replicative capacity. While compensatory mutations outside an epitope can restore replicative capacity, the kinetics with which they arise remains unknown. Additionally, certain patterns of linked mutations associated with CD8+ T cell epitope escape in these highly conserved regions may lead to variable levels of viral fitness. Here, we used pyrosequencing to investigate the kinetics and patterns of mutations surrounding the Mamu-A1*00101-bound Gag(181-189)CM9 CD8+ T cell epitope. We obtained more than 400 reads for each sequencing time point, allowing us to confidently detect the emergence of viral variants bearing escape mutations with frequencies as low as 1% of the circulating virus. With this level of detail, we demonstrate that compensatory mutations generally arise concomitantly with Gag(181-189)CM9 escape mutations. We observed distinct patterns of linked flanking mutations, most of which were found downstream of Gag(181-189)CM9. Our data indicate that, whereas Gag(181-189)CM9 escape is much more complex that previously appreciated, it occurs in a coordinated fashion, with very specific patterns of flanking mutations required for immune evasion. This is the first detailed report of the ontogeny of compensatory mutations that allow CD8+ T cell epitope escape in infected individuals.

Robust, vaccine-induced CD8(+) T lymphocyte response against an out-of-frame epitope.

Rational vaccines designed to engender T cell responses require intimate knowledge of how epitopes are generated and presented. Recently, we vaccinated 8 Mamu-A*02(+) rhesus macaques with every SIV protein except Envelope (Env). Surprisingly, one of the strongest T cell responses engendered was against the Env protein, the Mamu-A*02-restricted epitope, Env(788-795)RY8. In this paper, we show that translation from an alternate reading frame of both the Rev-encoding DNA plasmid and the rAd5 vector engendered Env(788-795)RY8-specific CD8(+) T cells of greater magnitude than "normal" SIV infection. Our data demonstrate both that the pathway from vaccination to immune response is not well understood and that products of alternate reading frames may be rich and untapped sources of T cell epitopes.

Cytomegalovirus-vaccine-induced unconventional T cell priming and control of SIV replication is conserved between primate species.

Strain 68-1 rhesus cytomegalovirus expressing simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) antigens (RhCMV/SIV) primes MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells that control SIV replication in 50%-60% of the vaccinated rhesus macaques. Whether this unconventional SIV-specific immunity and protection is unique to rhesus macaques or RhCMV or is intrinsic to CMV remains unknown. Here, using cynomolgus CMV vectors expressing SIV antigens (CyCMV/SIV) and Mauritian cynomolgus macaques, we demonstrate that the induction of MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells requires matching CMV to its host species. RhCMV does not elicit MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells in cynomolgus macaques. However, cynomolgus macaques vaccinated with species-matched 68-1-like CyCMV/SIV mounted MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells, and half of the vaccinees stringently controlled SIV post-challenge. Protected animals manifested a vaccine-induced IL-15 transcriptomic signature that is associated with efficacy in rhesus macaques. These findings demonstrate that the ability of species-matched CMV vectors to elicit MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells that are required for anti-SIV efficacy is conserved in nonhuman primates, and these data support the development of HCMV/HIV for a prophylactic HIV vaccine.