Body Composition Trajectories During the First 23 Months of Life Differ by HIV Exposure Among Infants in Western Kenya: A Prospective Study.

BACKGROUND: Infants who are HIV-exposed and uninfected have suboptimal growth patterns compared to those who are HIV-unexposed and uninfected. However, little is known about how these patterns persist beyond 1 year of life. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to examine whether infant body composition and growth trajectories differed by HIV exposure during the first 2 years of life among Kenyan infants using advanced growth modeling. METHODS: Repeated infant body composition and growth measurements (mean: 6; range: 2-7) were obtained from 6 weeks to 23 months in the Pith Moromo cohort in Western Kenya (n = 295, 50% HIV-exposed and uninfected, 50% male). Body composition trajectory groups were fitted using latent class mixed modeling (LCMM) and associations between HIV exposure and growth trajectories were examined using logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: All infants exhibited poor growth. However, HIV-exposed infants generally grew suboptimally than unexposed infants. Across all body composition models except for the sum of skinfolds, HIV-exposed infants had a higher likelihood of belonging to the suboptimal growth groups identified by LCMM than the HIV-unexposed infants. Notably, HIV-exposed infants were 3.3 times more likely (95% CI: 1.5-7.4) to belong to the length-for-age z-score growth class that remained at a z-score of < -2, indicating stunted growth. HIV-exposed infants were also 2.6 times more likely (95% CI: 1.2-5.4) to belong to the weight-for-length-for-age z-score growth class that remained between 0 and -1, and were 4.2 times more likely (95% CI: 1.9-9.3) to belong to the weight-for-age z-score growth class that indicated poor weight gain besides stunted linear growth. CONCLUSIONS: In a cohort of Kenyan infants, HIV-exposed infants grew suboptimally compared to HIV-unexposed infants beyond 1 year of age. These growth patterns and longer-term effects should be further investigated to support the ongoing efforts to reduce early-life HIV exposure-related health disparities.

Relationship Between Human Milk Feeding Patterns and Growth in the First Year of Life in Infants with Congenital Heart Defects.

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between patterning of human milk feeding and growth of infants with congenital heart defects in the first year of life. Inclusion criteria for this prospective cohort study included infants 0-21 days, who had undergone or had planned neonatal corrective or palliative surgery prior to hospital discharge, and whose mothers planned to feed human milk. Data on anthropometric measures (weight, length, head circumference) and infant milk type (human milk, formula, other) were collected at nine time points (0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 months). Anthropometric data were converted to weight-for-age, length-for-age, head circumference-for-age, and weight-for-length Z-scores using World Health Organization growth reference data. Cluster analysis identified three milk type feeding patterns in the first year: Infants fed human milk only with no formula supplementation, infants fed human milk who then transitioned to a mix of human milk and formula, and infants who fed human milk and transitioned to formula only. General linear models assessed the effect of milk type feeding patterns on growth parameters over time. No effect of milk type pattern × time was found on longitudinal changes in weight-for-age (p for interaction = 0.228), length-for-age (p for interaction = 0.173), weight-for-length (p for interaction = 0.507), or head circumference-for-age (p for interaction = 0.311) Z-scores. In this cohort study, human milk alone or combined with infant formula supported age-appropriate growth in infants with congenital heart defects in the first year.

Weight Loss, Stability, and Low Weight Gain during Pregnancy among Individuals with Obesity: Associations with Adverse Perinatal Outcomes: An Observational Study.

OBJECTIVE: The safety of weight loss and low weight gain during pregnancy remains unclear. To determine how different patterns of gestational weight gain (GWG), including weight loss, stability, and low GWG relate to perinatal outcomes by prepregnancy obesity class. STUDY DESIGN: The study population included 29,408 singleton livebirths among pregnant people with obesity from Kaiser Permanente Northern California (2008-2013). Clinically measured GWG was grouped into meaningful categories (Adequate: reference, met 2009 National Academy of Medicine [NAM] Guidelines [5-9.1 kg], Excessive [>9.1 kg], Low [1-4.9 kg], Stable [±1 kg], Weight Loss [>1 kg]) or GWG Z-score quintiles. Modified Poisson regression was used to estimate risk of adverse outcomes, stratified by obesity class. Electronic health record data were used to define outcomes, including cesarean delivery, preterm birth, admission to the neonatal intensive care unit, small- and large-for-gestational age infants. RESULTS: Prevalence of weight stability and weight loss was 3.8 and 3.4%, respectively. Compared with those who gained within NAM, increased risk of small-for-gestational age was observed among those with weight loss among obesity class I (Risk Ratio (RR): 1.57, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.12, 2.19), obesity class II (RR: 2.18, 95% CI: 1.52, 3.13), and obesity class III (RR: 1.72, 95% CI: 1.21, 2.45). Weight loss was associated with a decreased risk of cesarean delivery among obesity class III, compared with NAM. CONCLUSION: Weight loss during pregnancy is associated with increased risk of small-for-gestational age among all obesity classes, but not other adverse perinatal outcomes and may reduce risk of cesarean delivery. Low weight gain and weight stability are not associated with risk of adverse outcomes among those with class III obesity. GWG guidelines may need to vary by obesity class. KEY POINTS: · Weight loss during pregnancy is associated with increased risk of small-for-gestational age among all obesity classes; but weight loss was not associated with other adverse perinatal outcomes.. · Among class III, low weight gain and weight stability are not associated with adverse perinatal outcomes.. · GWG guidelines may need to vary by obesity class..

Prenatal Weight Change Trajectories and Perinatal Outcomes among Twin Gestations.

OBJECTIVE: Despite an increase in twin pregnancies in recent decades, the Institute of Medicine twin weight gain recommendations remain provisional and provide no guidance for the pattern or timing of weight change. We sought to characterize gestational weight change trajectory patterns and examine associations with birth outcomes in a cohort of twin pregnancies. STUDY DESIGN: Prenatal and delivery records were examined for 320 twin pregnancies from a maternal-fetal medicine practice in Austin, TX 2011-2019. Prenatal weights for those with >1 measured weight in the first trimester and ≥3 prenatal weights were included in analyses. Trajectories were estimated to 32 weeks (mean delivery: 33.7 ± 3.3 weeks) using flexible latent class mixed models with low-rank thin-plate splines. Associations between trajectory classes and infant outcomes were analyzed using multivariable Poisson or linear regression. RESULTS: Weight change from prepregnancy to delivery was 15.4 ± 6.3 kg for people with an underweight body mass index, 15.4 ± 5.8 kg for healthy weight, 14.7 ± 6.9 kg for overweight, and 12.5 ± 6.4 kg for obesity. Three trajectory classes were identified: low (Class 1), moderate (Class 2), or high gain (Class 3). Class 1 (24.7%) maintained weight for 15 weeks and then gained an estimated 6.6 kg at 32 weeks. Class 2 (60.9%) exhibited steady gain with 13.5 kg predicted total gain, and Class 3 (14.4%) showed rapid gain across pregnancy with 21.3 kg predicted gain. Compared to Class 1, Class 3 was associated with higher birth weight z-score (ß = 0.63, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.31,0.96), increased risk for large for gestational age (IRR = 5.60, 95% CI: 1.59, 19.67), and birth <32 weeks (IRR = 2.44, 95%CI: 1.10, 5.4) that was attenuated in sensitivity analyses. Class 2 was associated with moderately elevated birth weight z-score (ß = 0.24, 95%CI: 0.00, 0.48, p = 0.050). CONCLUSION: Gestational weight change followed a low, moderate, or high trajectory; both moderate and high gain patterns were associated with increased infant size outcomes. Optimal patterns of weight change that balance risk during the prenatal, perinatal, and neonatal periods require further investigation, particularly in high-risk twin pregnancies. KEY POINTS: · A majority gained weight below IOM twin recommendations.. · Three patterns of GWC across pregnancy were identified.. · Moderate or high GWC was associated with infant size..

What stops us from eating: a qualitative investigation of dietary barriers during pregnancy in Punjab, Pakistan.

OBJECTIVE: Adequate dietary intake during pregnancy is vital for the health and nutritional status of both mother and fetus. The nutritional status of reproductive age women in Pakistan is poor, with 14 % being underweight (BMI < 18·5) and 42 % experiencing Fe deficiency anaemia. This may stem from beliefs, practices and other barriers influencing dietary intake. This qualitative study seeks to determine which factors impact dietary intake during pregnancy in rural Punjab. DESIGN: In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were conducted and then analysed using thematic analysis. SETTING: Three purposively selected rural districts (Sahiwal, Okara and Pakpatan) with the highest prevalence of maternal and child malnutrition in the province of Punjab, Pakistan. PARTICIPANTS: Mothers with children under age two (n 29) and healthcare providers with at least 5 years of experience working in the district (n 12). RESULTS: We identified a combination of physiological, socio-cultural and structural barriers that inhibited healthful dietary intake during pregnancy. The primary physiological barriers to optimal dietary intake and dietary practices included food aversions and food cravings. Food classification, fear of a difficult childbirth, fear of high blood pressure and household food politics were the principal socio-cultural barriers. Additionally, two structural barriers, inadequate antenatal counseling and a lack of affordable food options, were identified. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrates that complex barriers prevent pregnant women in the Punjab area from consuming adequate dietary intake and that antenatal health education programmes and structural interventions are needed to support healthful dietary practices during this critical period.

Breastfeeding, socioeconomic status, and long-term postpartum weight retention.

BACKGROUND: Almost half of all pregnant women in the United States gain weight above Institute of Medicine gestational weight gain guidelines. Breastfeeding has been shown to reduce weight retention in the first year postpartum; however, women with lower socioeconomic status (SES) tend to initiate breastfeeding less often than women with higher SES. We investigated associations between duration of breastfeeding with mother's long-term postpartum weight status at 4-10 years and evaluated whether the associations varied by SES. METHODS: Maternal and infant dyads (N = 2144 dyads) are from the Geographic Research on Wellbeing survey (GROW), 2012-2013, a long-term, cross-sectional follow-up of the Maternal and Infant Health Assessment (MIHA) based in California, USA. Pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) was obtained from self-report of height and weight during MIHA, while breastfeeding history and self-report of current body weight was collected at the 4-10 year GROW postpartum visit. SES score was derived from a composite score of percent federal poverty level and education and was dichotomized into High and Low SES groups at a score of three. Multivariable linear regression was used to examine association between breastfeeding and maternal weight status, and to examine for effect modification by SES. RESULTS: Average long-term weight retention 4-10 years postpartum was 4.0 kg. Fewer lower SES vs. higher SES women breast fed at least six months (51% versus 70%, p < .001) or ever breastfed (74% versus 89%, P < .001). Women who breastfed at least six months had lower long-term postpartum weight retention compared to those who did not (b = -1.06 kg, (-1.93, 0.25); p = 0.01); however, these association did not vary by SES. CONCLUSION: Six months of breastfeeding is associated with lower BMI at 4-10 years and lower body weight, and effects do not vary by SES. Future policies and guidelines should consider building an infrastructure that is supportive of longer breastfeeding duration. Moreover, further research is needed to identify the impact of additional behavioral and environmental factors on long-term maternal weight status. Understanding the drivers of excessive weight retention pospartum can help us not only improve the pregnant person's health but the health of their children.

Novel approaches to examining weight changes in pregnancies affected by obesity.

BACKGROUND: Current gestational weight change (GWC) recommendations for obese individuals were established with limited evidence of the pattern and timing of weight change across pregnancy. Similarly, the recommendation of 5-9 kg does not differentiate by the severity of obesity. OBJECTIVES: We sought to describe GWC trajectory classes by obesity grade and associated infant outcomes among a large, diverse cohort. METHODS: The study population included 22,355 individuals with singleton pregnancies, obesity (BMI ≥30.0 kg/m2), and normal glucose tolerance who delivered at Kaiser Permanente Northern California between 2008 and 2013. Obesity grade-specific GWC trajectories were modeled at 38 wk using flexible latent class mixed modeling (package lcmm) in R. Multivariable Poisson or linear regression models estimated the associations between the GWC trajectory class and infant outcomes (size-for-gestational age and preterm birth) by obesity grade. RESULTS: Five GWC trajectory classes were identified for each obesity grade, each with a distinct pattern of weight change before 15 wk (including loss, stability, and gain) followed by weight gain thereafter (low, moderate, and high). Two classes with high overall gain were associated with an increased risk for large for gestational age (LGA) in obesity grade 1 (IRR = 1.27; 95% CI: 1.10, 1.46; IRR = 1.47; 95% CI: 1.24, 1.74). Both high (IRR = 2.02; 95% CI: 1.61, 2.52; IRR = 1.98; 95% CI: 1.52, 2.58) and 2 moderate-gain classes (IRR = 1.40; 95% CI 1.14, 1.71; IRR = 1.51; 95% CI: 1.20, 1.90) were associated with LGA in grade 2, and only early loss/late moderate-gain class 3 (IRR = 1.30; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.62) was associated in grade 3. This class was also associated with preterm birth in grade 2. No associations were detected between GWC and small for gestational age (SGA). CONCLUSIONS: Among the pregnancies affected by obesity, GWC was not linear or uniform. Different patterns of high gain were associated with an increased risk for LGA with the greatest magnitude in obesity grade 2, whereas GWC patterns were not associated with SGA.

Changes in Meal and Menu Quality at Early Care and Education Programs after Training with Food Service Staff: the FRESH Study.

Background: Prevalence of obesity in Native American (NA) children is disproportionately high, indicating a higher risk of health disparities. Many children attend early care and education (ECE) programs, presenting an opportune environment to improve meal and menu quality as the intake of healthy foods is associated with lowered risk of childhood obesity. Objectives: We aimed to examine the effectiveness of food service staff training on meals and menu quality across NA ECEs. Methods: Food service staff from 9 participating ECE programs attended a 3-h training focused on Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) best practices, and received a tailored, best-practice menu, and healthy recipes. Meals and menus prepared across 1 wk were examined per CACFP serving size assumptions at baseline, 4 mos, 6 mos, and 12 mos for all 9 programs. Healthy Eating Index (HEI), CACFP requirements and best practices achievement, and food substitutions quality (classified into superior, equivalent, and inferior based on the nutritional quality) were calculated. A repeated measures ANOVA model was used to determine the differences across time points. Results: The total meal HEI score increased significantly from baseline to 4 mos (71.1 ± 2.1; 78.6 ± 5.0; P = 0.004), but did not differ from baseline to 12 mos. Menu CACFP requirements and best practices achievement did not differ across time points, although achievement with CACFP requirements was already high at baseline. Superior nutrition quality substitutions declined from baseline to 6 mos (32.4 ± 8.9; 19.5 ± 10.9; P = 0.007); however, it did not differ from baseline to 12 mos. Equivalent and inferior quality substitutions did not differ across time points. Conclusions: Implementing a best-practice menu with healthy recipes showed immediate improvements in meal quality. Although the change did not sustain, this study showed evidence of an opportunity to educate and train food service staff. Robust efforts are needed for improving both meals and menus.This trial was registered ClinicalTrials.gov as NCT03251950 (https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03251950?cond=food+resource+equity&draw=2&rank=1).

Prenatal weight and regional body composition trajectories and neonatal body composition: The NICHD Foetal Growth Studies.

BACKGROUND: Gestational weight gain (GWG) and anthropometric trajectories may affect foetal programming and are potentially modifiable. OBJECTIVES: To assess concomitant patterns of change in weight, circumferences and adiposity across gestation as an integrated prenatal exposure, and determine how they relate to neonatal body composition. METHODS: Data are from a prospective cohort of singleton pregnancies (n = 2182) enrolled in United States perinatal centres, 2009-2013. Overall and by prepregnancy BMI group (overweight/obesity and healthy weight), joint latent trajectory models were fit with prenatal weight, mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), triceps (TSF) and subscapular (SSF) skinfolds. Differences in neonatal body composition by trajectory class were assessed via weighted least squares. RESULTS: Six trajectory patterns reflecting co-occurring changes in weight and MUAC, SSF and TSF across pregnancy were identified overall and by body mass index (BMI) group. Among people with a healthy weight BMI, some differences were observed for neonatal subcutaneous adipose tissue, and among individuals with overweight/obesity some differences in neonatal lean mass were found. Neonatal adiposity measures were higher among infants born to individuals with prepregnancy overweight/obesity. CONCLUSIONS: Six integrated trajectory patterns of prenatal weight, subcutaneous adipose tissue and circumferences were observed that were minimally associated with neonatal body composition, suggesting a stronger influence of prepregnancy BMI.

Gestational weight change and childhood body composition trajectories from pregnancy to early adolescence.

OBJECTIVE: A mother-child dyad trajectory model of weight and body composition spanning from conception to adolescence was developed to understand how early life exposures shape childhood body composition. METHODS: African American (49.3%) and Dominican (50.7%) pregnant mothers (n = 337) were enrolled during pregnancy, and their children (47.5% female) were followed from ages 5 to 14. Gestational weight gain (GWG) was abstracted from medical records. Child weight, height, percentage body fat, and waist circumference were measured. GWG and child body composition trajectories were jointly modeled with a flexible latent class model with a class membership component that included prepregnancy BMI. RESULTS: Four prenatal and child body composition trajectory patterns were identified, and sex-specific patterns were observed for the joint GWG-postnatal body composition trajectories with more distinct patterns among girls but not boys. Girls of mothers with high GWG across gestation had the highest BMI z score, waist circumference, and percentage body fat trajectories from ages 5 to 14; however, boys in this high GWG group did not show similar growth patterns. CONCLUSIONS: Jointly modeled prenatal weight and child body composition trajectories showed sex-specific patterns. Growth patterns from childhood though early adolescence appeared to be more profoundly affected by higher GWG patterns in females, suggesting sex differences in developmental programming.

Impact of the 2017 Child and Adult Care Food Program Meal Pattern Requirement Change on Menu Quality in Tribal Early Care Environments: The Food Resource Equity and Sustainability for Health Study.

BACKGROUND: Native American (NA) children have a high prevalence of obesity contributing to lifespan health disparities. Dietary intake is important to promote healthy weight gain, growth, and development. In 2017, the USDA enforced changes to the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP). The CACFP provides reimbursement to qualifying Early Care and Education (ECE) programs that serve foods that uphold the program's nutrition requirements. OBJECTIVE: This study had the following 2 objectives: 1) Describe a novel index to evaluate ECE menus based on revised CACFP requirements (accounting for food substitutions) and best practices for 3- to-5-y-old children, and 2) analyze CACFP requirement and best practice compliance and nutrient changes in 9 NA ECE programs before and after enforcement of the revised CACFP requirements. METHODS: This longitudinal study is within a larger community-based participatory research study. Menus and meals served were evaluated for 1 wk at each of 9 programs before and after enforcement of the revised meal patterns. Nutrient analysis, CACFP requirement and best practice compliance, and substitution quality were evaluated. Differences were determined using a paired t-test or Wilcoxon matched test. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03251950. RESULTS: Total grams of fiber consumed increased (5.0 ± 1.2 compared with 5.9 ± 0.8 g, P = 0.04) and total grams of sugar consumed decreased (53.8 ± 12.6 compared with 48.4 ± 7.9 g, P = 0.024), although room for further improvement exists. Although total grams of fat remained unchanged, grams of saturated fat significantly increased (7.8 ± 1.4 compared with 10.5 ± 3.4, P = 0.041). Other nutrients remained unchanged. Overall CACFP requirement and best practice compliance scores improved, although this finding was not statistically significant. No significant changes in food quality associated with substitutions occurred. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides early evidence to support the beneficial impact of the revised CACFP requirements. Understanding barriers to compliance within rural NA communities would be an important next step in enhancing the health of vulnerable children.

The development of child and adult care food program best-practice menu and training for Native American head start programs: The FRESH study.

New Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) meal patterns and best practices were implemented nationally in 2017 to address the shift in dietary need from ensuring essential nutrient consumption to chronic disease prevention. Young American Indian (AI) children have disproportionately higher risk of chronic disease. Some AI tribes operate early care and education (ECE) programs and have the opportunity to participate in the CACFP. The purpose of this paper is to describe a CACFP best-practice menu and training developed and implemented as part of the Food Resource Equity and Sustainability for Health (FRESH) study, a community-based participatory research (CBPR) intervention implemented within ECE programs in the Osage Nation of Oklahoma. Site managers and cooks from each of the nine ECE programs attended meetings and provided investigators with feedback that shaped the best-practice menu and training. Each site participated in a three-hour training in January 2018 to discuss the best-practice menu and ways to overcome implementation barriers. Goals of the menu aimed to increase intake of fruit and vegetables and whole grains and reduce pre-fried and processed foods without increasing cook burden. Training included application activities individually and in small and large groups. Though the project is still underway, lessons learned, including the need for technical assistance, improved communication between ECE program staff and food supply vendors, and infrastructure barriers (e.g., limited space, lack of supplies) that challenge workflow, have emerged. Efforts to improve menus in rural and low-income ECE programs must consider these issues in developing feasible intervention strategies.