Impaired GABAergic regulation and developmental immaturity in interneurons derived from the medial ganglionic eminence in the tuberous sclerosis complex.

GABAergic interneurons play a critical role in maintaining neural circuit balance, excitation-inhibition regulation, and cognitive function modulation. In tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), GABAergic neuron dysfunction contributes to disrupted network activity and associated neurological symptoms, assumingly in a cell type-specific manner. This GABAergic centric study focuses on identifying specific interneuron subpopulations within TSC, emphasizing the unique characteristics of medial ganglionic eminence (MGE)- and caudal ganglionic eminence (CGE)-derived interneurons. Using single-nuclei RNA sequencing in TSC patient material, we identify somatostatin-expressing (SST+) interneurons as a unique and immature subpopulation in TSC. The disrupted maturation of SST+ interneurons may undergo an incomplete switch from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic signaling during development, resulting in reduced inhibitory properties. Notably, this study reveals markers of immaturity specifically in SST+ interneurons, including an abnormal NKCC1/KCC2 ratio, indicating an imbalance in chloride homeostasis crucial for the postsynaptic consequences of GABAergic signaling as well as the downregulation of GABAA receptor subunits, GABRA1, and upregulation of GABRA2. Further exploration of SST+ interneurons revealed altered localization patterns of SST+ interneurons in TSC brain tissue, concentrated in deeper cortical layers, possibly linked to cortical dyslamination. In the epilepsy context, our research underscores the diverse cell type-specific roles of GABAergic interneurons in shaping seizures, advocating for precise therapeutic considerations. Moreover, this study illuminates the potential contribution of SST+ interneurons to TSC pathophysiology, offering insights for targeted therapeutic interventions.

A novel rapamycin cream formulation improves facial angiofibromas associated with tuberous sclerosis complex: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Facial angiofibromas (FAs) are a major feature of tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC). Topical rapamycin can successfully treat FAs. A new stabilized cream formulation that protects rapamycin from oxidation has been developed in 0.5% and 1% concentrations. OBJECTIVES: To assess the efficacy and safety of a novel, stabilized topical rapamycin cream formulation. METHODS: This multicentre double-blind randomized placebo-controlled dose-response phase II/III study with a parallel design included participants aged 6-65 years with FAs of mild or moderate severity according to the Investigator's Global Assessment (IGA) scale. Participants were randomized to one of three treatment arms: topical rapamycin 0.5%, topical rapamycin 1% or placebo. Treatment was applied once daily for 26 weeks. Safety and efficacy measures were assessed at days 14, 56, 98, 140 and 182. The primary endpoint was the percentage of participants achieving IGA scores of 'clear' or 'almost clear' after 26 weeks of treatment. Secondary measures included Facial Angiofibroma Severity Index (FASI) and participant- and clinician-reported percentage-based improvement. Safety measures included the incidence of treatment-emergent adverse events and blood rapamycin concentration changes over time. RESULTS: Participants (n = 107) were randomized to receive either rapamycin 1% (n = 33), rapamycin 0.5% (n = 36) or placebo (n = 38). All treated participants were included in the final analysis. The percentage of participants with a two-grade IGA improvement was greater in the rapamycin 0.5% treatment group (11%) and rapamycin 1% group (9%) than in the placebo group (5%). However, this was not statistically significant [rapamycin 0.5%: odds ratio (OR) 1.71, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.36-8.18 (P = 0.50); rapamycin 1%: OR 1.68, 95% CI 0.33-8.40 (P = 0.53)]. There was a statistically significant difference in the proportion of participants treated with rapamycin cream that achieved at least a one-grade improvement in IGA [rapamycin 0.5%: 56% (OR 4.73, 95% CI 1.59-14.10; P = 0.005); rapamycin 1%: 61% (OR 5.14, 95% CI 1.70-15.57; P = 0.004); placebo: 24%]. Skin adverse reactions were more common in patients following rapamycin application (64%) vs. placebo (29%). CONCLUSIONS: Both rapamycin cream formulations (0.5% and 1%) were well tolerated, and either strength could lead to clinical benefit in the treatment of FA.

Clinical seizure semiology is subtle and identification of seizures by parents is unreliable in infants with tuberous sclerosis complex.

OBJECTIVE: The objectives of this study were to assess the accuracy of parental seizure detection in infants with antenatally diagnosed tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), and to document the total seizure burden (clinical and subclinical) in those patients who met criteria for prolonged electroencephalography (EEG) recording. METHODS: Consecutive infants at a single institution with antenatally diagnosed TSC who met criteria for prolonged video-EEG (vEEG) were recruited to this study. The vEEG data were reviewed and when a seizure was identified on EEG, the video and audio recording was assessed for evidence of clinical seizure and, if present, whether there was evidence of parent seizure identification. RESULTS: Nine infants were enrolled, for whom 674 focal seizures were identified in eight of nine patients across 24 prolonged vEEG recordings, with vEEG total duration of 634 h 49 min (average seizure frequency of 1 focal seizure/h). Only 220 of 674 (32.6%) were clinical seizures, 395 of 674 (58.6%) were subclinical seizures, and 59 of 674 seizures could not be classified. Only 63 of 220 clinical seizures (28.6%) were identified by parents, with 157 of 220 (71.4%) not identified. Thirty clusters of epileptic spasms were detected in one patient. At least one clinical epileptic spasm occurred in 2 of 30 clusters (6.7%), 24 of 30 clusters of epileptic spasms (80%) were electrographic only, and classification was uncertain for 4 of 30 clusters (13.3%). No clinical epileptic spasms were detected by parents. Clinical seizure frequency was significantly underestimated by parents for all patients. SIGNIFICANCE: This study demonstrates that in infants with TSC who met criteria for prolonged vEEG, (1) parents significantly under recognize total clinical seizure count, (2) parents fail to identify epileptic spasms, and (3) seizure frequency is high. This highlights that epilepsy treatment decisions should not be based solely on parental clinical seizure identification. Prolonged vEEG monitoring may have an important role in the routine epilepsy care of infants with TSC, as demonstrating undetected high clinical seizure frequency may allow improved epilepsy management decisions.

Fenfluramine provides clinically meaningful reduction in frequency of drop seizures in patients with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: Interim analysis of an open-label extension study.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to evaluate the long-term safety and effectiveness of fenfluramine in patients with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS). METHODS: Eligible patients with LGS who completed a 14-week phase 3 randomized clinical trial enrolled in an open-label extension (OLE; NCT03355209). All patients were initially started on .2 mg/kg/day fenfluramine and after 1 month were titrated by effectiveness and tolerability, which were assessed at 3-month intervals. The protocol-specified treatment duration was 12 months, but COVID-19-related delays resulted in 142 patients completing their final visit after 12 months. RESULTS: As of October 19, 2020, 247 patients were enrolled in the OLE. Mean age was 14.3 ± 7.6 years (79 [32%] adults) and median fenfluramine treatment duration was 364 days; 88.3% of patients received 2-4 concomitant antiseizure medications. Median percentage change in monthly drop seizure frequency was -28.6% over the entire OLE (n = 241) and -50.5% at Month 15 (n = 142, p < .0001); 75 of 241 patients (31.1%) experienced ≥50% reduction in drop seizure frequency. Median percentage change in nondrop seizure frequency was -45.9% (n = 192, p = .0038). Generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS) and tonic seizures were most responsive to treatment, with median reductions over the entire OLE of 48.8% (p < .0001, n = 106) and 35.8% (p < .0001, n = 186), respectively. A total of 37.6% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 31.4%-44.1%, n = 237) of investigators and 35.2% of caregivers (95% CI = 29.1%-41.8%, n = 230) rated patients as Much Improved/Very Much Improved on the Clinical Global Impression of Improvement scale. The most frequent treatment-emergent adverse events were decreased appetite (16.2%) and fatigue (13.4%). No cases of valvular heart disease (VHD) or pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) were observed. SIGNIFICANCE: Patients with LGS experienced sustained reductions in drop seizure frequency on fenfluramine treatment, with a particularly robust reduction in frequency of GTCS, the key risk factor for sudden unexpected death in epilepsy. Fenfluramine was generally well tolerated; VHD or PAH was not observed long-term. Fenfluramine may provide an important long-term treatment option for LGS.

Peri-Insular Hemispherotomy: A Systematic Review and Institutional Experience.

INTRODUCTION: Peri-insular hemispherotomy (PIH) is a hemispheric separation technique under the broader hemispherotomy group, a surgical treatment for patients with intractable epilepsy. Hemispherotomy techniques such as the PIH, vertical parasagittal hemispherotomy (VPH), and modified-lateral hemispherotomy are commonly assessed together, despite significant differences in anatomical approach and patient selection. We aim to describe patient selection, outcomes, and complications of PIH in its own right. METHODS: A systematic review of the literature, in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, was conducted, with searches of the PubMed and Embase databases. A local series including patients receiving PIH and followed up at the Queensland Children's Hospital between 2014 and 2020 was included. RESULTS: Systematic review of the literature identified 393 patients from 13 eligible studies. Engel class 1 outcomes occurred in 82.4% of patients, while 8.6% developed post-operative hydrocephalus. Hydrocephalus was most common in the youngest patient cohorts. Developmental pathology was present in 114 (40.8%) patients, who had fewer Engel 1 outcomes compared to those with acquired pathology (69.1% vs. 83.7%, p = 0.0167). The local series included 13 patients, 11/13 (84.6%) had Engel class 1 seizure outcomes. Post-operative hydrocephalus occurred in 2 patients (15.4%), and 10/13 (76.9%) patients had worsened neurological deficit. CONCLUSION: PIH delivers Engel 1 outcomes for over 4 in 5 patients selected for this procedure, greater than described in combined hemispherectomy analyses. It is an effective technique in patients with developmental and acquired pathologies, despite general preference of VPH in this patient group. Finally, very young patients may have significant seizure and cognitive benefits from PIH; however, hydrocephalus is most common in this group warranting careful risk-benefit assessment. This review delivers a dedicated PIH outcomes analysis to inform clinical and patient decision-making.

Prevention of Epilepsy in Infants with Tuberous Sclerosis Complex in the EPISTOP Trial.

OBJECTIVE: Epilepsy develops in 70 to 90% of children with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) and is often resistant to medication. Recently, the concept of preventive antiepileptic treatment to modify the natural history of epilepsy has been proposed. EPISTOP was a clinical trial designed to compare preventive versus conventional antiepileptic treatment in TSC infants. METHODS: In this multicenter study, 94 infants with TSC without seizure history were followed with monthly video electroencephalography (EEG), and received vigabatrin either as conventional antiepileptic treatment, started after the first electrographic or clinical seizure, or preventively when epileptiform EEG activity before seizures was detected. At 6 sites, subjects were randomly allocated to treatment in a 1:1 ratio in a randomized controlled trial (RCT). At 4 sites, treatment allocation was fixed; this was denoted an open-label trial (OLT). Subjects were followed until 2 years of age. The primary endpoint was the time to first clinical seizure. RESULTS: In 54 subjects, epileptiform EEG abnormalities were identified before seizures. Twenty-seven were included in the RCT and 27 in the OLT. The time to the first clinical seizure was significantly longer with preventive than conventional treatment [RCT: 364 days (95% confidence interval [CI] = 223-535) vs 124 days (95% CI = 33-149); OLT: 426 days (95% CI = 258-628) vs 106 days (95% CI = 11-149)]. At 24 months, our pooled analysis showed preventive treatment reduced the risk of clinical seizures (odds ratio [OR] = 0.21, p = 0.032), drug-resistant epilepsy (OR = 0.23, p = 0.022), and infantile spasms (OR = 0, p < 0.001). No adverse events related to preventive treatment were noted. INTERPRETATION: Preventive treatment with vigabatrin was safe and modified the natural history of seizures in TSC, reducing the risk and severity of epilepsy. ANN NEUROL 2021;89:304-314.

ILAE classification and definition of epilepsy syndromes with onset in neonates and infants: Position statement by the ILAE Task Force on Nosology and Definitions.

The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) Task Force on Nosology and Definitions proposes a classification and definition of epilepsy syndromes in the neonate and infant with seizure onset up to 2 years of age. The incidence of epilepsy is high in this age group and epilepsy is frequently associated with significant comorbidities and mortality. The licensing of syndrome specific antiseizure medications following randomized controlled trials and the development of precision, gene-related therapies are two of the drivers defining the electroclinical phenotypes of syndromes with onset in infancy. The principal aim of this proposal, consistent with the 2017 ILAE Classification of the Epilepsies, is to support epilepsy diagnosis and emphasize the importance of classifying epilepsy in an individual both by syndrome and etiology. For each syndrome, we report epidemiology, clinical course, seizure types, electroencephalography (EEG), neuroimaging, genetics, and differential diagnosis. Syndromes are separated into self-limited syndromes, where there is likely to be spontaneous remission and developmental and epileptic encephalopathies, diseases where there is developmental impairment related to both the underlying etiology independent of epileptiform activity and the epileptic encephalopathy. The emerging class of etiology-specific epilepsy syndromes, where there is a specific etiology for the epilepsy that is associated with a clearly defined, relatively uniform, and distinct clinical phenotype in most affected individuals as well as consistent EEG, neuroimaging, and/or genetic correlates, is presented. The number of etiology-defined syndromes will continue to increase, and these newly described syndromes will in time be incorporated into this classification. The tables summarize mandatory features, cautionary alerts, and exclusionary features for the common syndromes. Guidance is given on the criteria for syndrome diagnosis in resource-limited regions where laboratory confirmation, including EEG, MRI, and genetic testing, might not be available.

Methodology for classification and definition of epilepsy syndromes with list of syndromes: Report of the ILAE Task Force on Nosology and Definitions.

Epilepsy syndromes have been recognized for >50 years, as distinct electroclinical phenotypes with therapeutic and prognostic implications. Nonetheless, no formally accepted International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) classification of epilepsy syndromes has existed. The ILAE Task Force on Nosology and Definitions was established to reach consensus regarding which entities fulfilled criteria for an epilepsy syndrome and to provide definitions for each syndrome. We defined an epilepsy syndrome as "a characteristic cluster of clinical and electroencephalographic features, often supported by specific etiological findings (structural, genetic, metabolic, immune, and infectious)." The diagnosis of a syndrome in an individual with epilepsy frequently carries prognostic and treatment implications. Syndromes often have age-dependent presentations and a range of specific comorbidities. This paper describes the guiding principles and process for syndrome identification in both children and adults, and the template of clinical data included for each syndrome. We divided syndromes into typical age at onset, and further characterized them based on seizure and epilepsy types and association with developmental and/or epileptic encephalopathy or progressive neurological deterioration. Definitions for each specific syndrome are contained within the corresponding position papers.

ILAE definition of the Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy Syndromes: Position statement by the ILAE Task Force on Nosology and Definitions.

In 2017, the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) Classification of Epilepsies described the "genetic generalized epilepsies" (GGEs), which contained the "idiopathic generalized epilepsies" (IGEs). The goal of this paper is to delineate the four syndromes comprising the IGEs, namely childhood absence epilepsy, juvenile absence epilepsy, juvenile myoclonic epilepsy, and epilepsy with generalized tonic-clonic seizures alone. We provide updated diagnostic criteria for these IGE syndromes determined by the expert consensus opinion of the ILAE's Task Force on Nosology and Definitions (2017-2021) and international external experts outside our Task Force. We incorporate current knowledge from recent advances in genetic, imaging, and electroencephalographic studies, together with current terminology and classification of seizures and epilepsies. Patients that do not fulfill criteria for one of these syndromes, but that have one, or a combination, of the following generalized seizure types: absence, myoclonic, tonic-clonic and myoclonic-tonic-clonic seizures, with 2.5-5.5 Hz generalized spike-wave should be classified as having GGE. Recognizing these four IGE syndromes as a special grouping among the GGEs is helpful, as they carry prognostic and therapeutic implications.

International League Against Epilepsy classification and definition of epilepsy syndromes with onset in childhood: Position paper by the ILAE Task Force on Nosology and Definitions.

The 2017 International League Against Epilepsy classification has defined a three-tier system with epilepsy syndrome identification at the third level. Although a syndrome cannot be determined in all children with epilepsy, identification of a specific syndrome provides guidance on management and prognosis. In this paper, we describe the childhood onset epilepsy syndromes, most of which have both mandatory seizure type(s) and interictal electroencephalographic (EEG) features. Based on the 2017 Classification of Seizures and Epilepsies, some syndrome names have been updated using terms directly describing the seizure semiology. Epilepsy syndromes beginning in childhood have been divided into three categories: (1) self-limited focal epilepsies, comprising four syndromes: self-limited epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes, self-limited epilepsy with autonomic seizures, childhood occipital visual epilepsy, and photosensitive occipital lobe epilepsy; (2) generalized epilepsies, comprising three syndromes: childhood absence epilepsy, epilepsy with myoclonic absence, and epilepsy with eyelid myoclonia; and (3) developmental and/or epileptic encephalopathies, comprising five syndromes: epilepsy with myoclonic-atonic seizures, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, developmental and/or epileptic encephalopathy with spike-and-wave activation in sleep, hemiconvulsion-hemiplegia-epilepsy syndrome, and febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome. We define each, highlighting the mandatory seizure(s), EEG features, phenotypic variations, and findings from key investigations.

International League Against Epilepsy classification and definition of epilepsy syndromes with onset at a variable age: position statement by the ILAE Task Force on Nosology and Definitions.

The goal of this paper is to provide updated diagnostic criteria for the epilepsy syndromes that have a variable age of onset, based on expert consensus of the International League Against Epilepsy Nosology and Definitions Taskforce (2017-2021). We use language consistent with current accepted epilepsy and seizure classifications and incorporate knowledge from advances in genetics, electroencephalography, and imaging. Our aim in delineating the epilepsy syndromes that present at a variable age is to aid diagnosis and to guide investigations for etiology and treatments for these patients.

Vagus nerve stimulation: a 20-year Australian experience.

BACKGROUND: Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) therapy was first approved in the mid-1990s in the USA, Europe and Australia, with demonstrable efficacy in paediatric populations. Benefit in seizure frequency reduction can be observed up to 2 years post-intervention; however, few studies assess outcomes beyond this period. Furthermore, paediatric cohort sizes are small, limiting generalisability of outcome assessments. We evaluate VNS insertion outcomes and complications or side-effects in a large paediatric cohort, over a 20-year period from Queensland's first VNS insertion. METHODS: A retrospective review was conducted of all paediatric VNS insertions at the Queensland Children's Hospital (QCH) and the Mater Children's Hospital/Mater Children's Private Hospital (MCH/MCPH) Brisbane. A minimum of 1-year follow-up from 1999 to 2020 was required for inclusion. Patients were assessed on demographics, epilepsy details, seizure outcomes and complications or side-effects. RESULTS: In this extended follow-up cohort (76 patients, 7.2 ± 5.3 years), 51.3% of patients had ≥ 50% seizure frequency reduction, while 73.7% experienced an Engel III outcome (worthwhile benefit) or better. Eleven patients (14.9%) were seizure-free at follow-up, and 81.6% retained long-term therapy. Stimulation-related side-effects are common (17.1%) but rarely result in stimulation cessation (3.9%). Cessation occurred in 14 patients (18.4%) and most commonly related to minimal benefit (13.2%). Demographics, aetiology, seizure nature and surgical factors did not influence outcomes. CONCLUSION: Over extended treatment periods, a large proportion of patients will benefit significantly from VNS therapy. Approximately 4 of 5 patients will retain VNS therapy, and in cases of cessation, this is most commonly related to minimal benefit. Underlying demographics, aetiology or seizure nature do not influence outcomes. This 20-year Queensland assessment of VNS therapy outcomes informs long-term expectation of VNS therapy.

Fetal Brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging Findings Predict Neurodevelopment in Children with Tuberous Sclerosis Complex.

OBJECTIVE: To correlate fetal brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings with epilepsy characteristics and neurodevelopment at 2 years of age in children with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) to improve prenatal counseling. STUDY DESIGN: This retrospective cohort study was performed in a collaboration between centers of the EPISTOP consortium. We included children with definite TSC, fetal MRIs, and available follow-up data at 2 years of age. A pediatric neuroradiologist masked to the patient's clinical characteristics evaluated all fetal MRIs. MRIs were categorized for each of the 10 brain lobes as score 0: no (sub)cortical lesions or doubt; score 1: a single small lesion; score 2: more than one small lesion or at least one large lesion (>5 mm). Neurologic manifestations were correlated to lesion sum scores. RESULTS: Forty-one children were included. Median gestational age at MRI was 33.3 weeks; (sub)cortical lesions were detected in 97.6%. Mean lesion sum score was 4.5. At 2 years, 58.5% of patients had epilepsy and 22% had drug-resistant epilepsy. Cognitive, language, and motor development were delayed in 38%, 81%, and 50% of patients, respectively. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) was diagnosed in 20.5%. Fetal MRI lesion sum scores were significantly associated with cognitive and motor development, and with ASD diagnosis, but not with epilepsy characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Fetal cerebral lesion scores correlate with neurodevelopment and ASD at 2 years in children with TSC.

Transcriptome analysis of a ring chromosome 20 patient cohort.

Ring chromosomes occur when the ends of normally rod-shaped chromosomes fuse. In ring chromosome 20 (ring 20), intellectual disability and epilepsy are usually present, even if there is no deleted coding material; the mechanism by which individuals with complete ring chromosomes develop seizures and other phenotypic abnormalities is not understood. We investigated altered gene transcription as a contributing factor by performing RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis on blood from seven patients with ring 20, and 11 first-degree relatives (all parents). Geographic analysis did not identify altered expression in peritelomeric or other specific chromosome 20 regions. RNA-seq analysis revealed 97 genes potentially differentially expressed in ring 20 patients. These included one epilepsy gene, NPRL3, but this finding was not confirmed on reverse transcription Droplet Digital polymerase chain reaction analysis. Molecular studies of structural chromosomal anomalies such as ring chromosome are challenging and often difficult to interpret because many patients are mosaic, and there may be genome-wide chromosomal instability affecting gene expression. Our findings nevertheless suggest that peritelomeric altered transcription is not the likely pathogenic mechanism in ring 20. Underlying genetic mechanisms are likely complex and may involve differential expression of many genes, the majority of which may not be located on chromosome 20.

Early epileptiform EEG activity in infants with tuberous sclerosis complex predicts epilepsy and neurodevelopmental outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: To study the association between timing and characteristics of the first electroencephalography (EEG) with epileptiform discharges (ED-EEG) and epilepsy and neurodevelopment at 24 months in infants with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC). METHODS: Patients enrolled in the prospective Epileptogenesis in a genetic model of epilepsy - Tuberous sclerosis complex (EPISTOP) trial, had serial EEG monitoring until the age of 24 months. The timing and characteristics of the first ED-EEG were studied in relation to clinical outcome. Epilepsy-related outcomes were analyzed separately in a conventionally followed group (initiation of vigabatrin after seizure onset) and a preventive group (initiation of vigabatrin before seizures, but after appearance of interictal epileptiform discharges [IEDs]). RESULTS: Eighty-three infants with TSC were enrolled at a median age of 28 days (interquartile range [IQR] 14-54). Seventy-nine of 83 patients (95%) developed epileptiform discharges at a median age of 77 days (IQR 23-111). Patients with a pathogenic TSC2 variant were significantly younger (P-value .009) at first ED-EEG and more frequently had multifocal IED (P-value .042) than patients with a pathogenic TSC1 variant. A younger age at first ED-EEG was significantly associated with lower cognitive (P-value .010), language (P-value .001), and motor (P-value .013) developmental quotients at 24 months. In the conventional group, 48 of 60 developed seizures. In this group, the presence of focal slowing on the first ED-EEG was predictive of earlier seizure onset (P-value .030). Earlier recording of epileptiform discharges (P-value .019), especially when multifocal (P-value .026) was associated with higher risk of drug-resistant epilepsy. In the preventive group, timing, distribution of IED, or focal slowing, was not associated with the epilepsy outcomes. However, when multifocal IEDs were present on the first ED-EEG, preventive treatment delayed the onset of seizures significantly (P-value <.001). SIGNIFICANCE: Early EEG findings help to identify TSC infants at risk of severe epilepsy and neurodevelopmental delay and those who may benefit from preventive treatment with vigabatrin.

TSC2 pathogenic variants are predictive of severe clinical manifestations in TSC infants: results of the EPISTOP study.

PURPOSE: To perform comprehensive genotyping of TSC1 and TSC2 in a cohort of 94 infants with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) and correlate with clinical manifestations. METHODS: Infants were enrolled at age <4 months, and subject to intensive clinical monitoring including electroencephalography (EEG), brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and neuropsychological assessment. Targeted massively parallel sequencing (MPS), genome sequencing, and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) were used for variant detection in TSC1/TSC2. RESULTS: Pathogenic variants in TSC1 or TSC2 were identified in 93 of 94 (99%) subjects, with 23 in TSC1 and 70 in TSC2. Nine (10%) subjects had mosaicism. Eight of 24 clinical features assessed at age 2 years were significantly less frequent in those with TSC1 versus TSC2 variants including cortical tubers, hypomelanotic macules, facial angiofibroma, renal cysts, drug-resistant epilepsy, developmental delay, subependymal giant cell astrocytoma, and median seizure-free survival. Additionally, quantitative brain MRI analysis showed a marked difference in tuber and subependymal nodule/giant cell astrocytoma volume for TSC1 versus TSC2. CONCLUSION: TSC2 pathogenic variants are associated with a more severe clinical phenotype than mosaic TSC2 or TSC1 variants in TSC infants. Early assessment of gene variant status and mosaicism might have benefit for clinical management in infants and young children with TSC.

Quality of life and its association with comorbidities and adverse events from antiepileptic medications: Online survey of patients with epilepsy in Australia.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to explore the quality of life (QoL) of adult patients with epilepsy (PwE) in Australia and its relationship with comorbidities and adverse events (AEs) from antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). METHODS: Cross-sectional surveys were completed by PwE, or carer proxies, recruited via the online pharmacy application MedAdvisor and Australian PwE Facebook groups from May to August 2018. Data were collected on demographics, epilepsy severity and management, AEs, comorbidities, and QoL (using the Patient-Weighted Quality of Life in Epilepsy Inventory [QOLIE-10-P] total score). Two linear regression models were constructed to explore associations between AEs or comorbidities and QOLIE-10-P score, with possible confounders determined using stepwise selection. RESULTS: Nine hundred and seventy-eight of 1267 responses were eligible (mean age of respondents: 44.5 years, 64% female, 52% employed). Recent AED use was reported by 97%; 47% were on AED monotherapy, 35% had ≤2 lifetime AEDs, and 55% were seizure-free for >1 year. After stepwise selection, control variables included in both models were time since diagnosis, employment status, seizure frequency, number of currently prescribed AEDs, and number of general practitioner (GP) visits per year. In the model for comorbidities, "psychiatric disorders" was associated with the largest QOLIE-10-P score decrease (-23.14, p < 0.001). In the model for AEs, which additionally controlled for depression and anxiety disorder, self-reported "memory problems" was associated with the largest decrease in QOLIE-10-P score (-14.27, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In this survey of Australian PwE, many of whom had relatively well-controlled epilepsy, psychiatric and self-reported memory problems were common and associated with the greatest detrimental impact on QoL. Further research is needed to better understand the underlying causes of impaired QoL and thereby improve its management.

An LC-MS/MS-Based Method for the Quantification of Pyridox(am)ine 5'-Phosphate Oxidase Activity in Dried Blood Spots from Patients with Epilepsy.

We report the development of a rapid, simple, and robust LC-MS/MS-based enzyme assay using dried blood spots (DBS) for the diagnosis of pyridox(am)ine 5'-phosphate oxidase (PNPO) deficiency (OMIM 610090). PNPO deficiency leads to potentially fatal early infantile epileptic encephalopathy, severe developmental delay, and other features of neurological dysfunction. However, upon prompt treatment with high doses of vitamin B6, affected patients can have a normal developmental outcome. Prognosis of these patients is therefore reliant upon a rapid diagnosis. PNPO activity was quantified by measuring pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) concentrations in a DBS before and after a 30 min incubation with pyridoxine 5'-phosphate (PNP). Samples from 18 PNPO deficient patients (1 day-25 years), 13 children with other seizure disorders receiving B6 supplementation (1 month-16 years), and 37 child hospital controls (5 days-15 years) were analyzed. DBS from the PNPO-deficient samples showed enzyme activity levels lower than all samples from these two other groups as well as seven adult controls; no false positives or negatives were identified. The method was fully validated and is suitable for translation into the clinical diagnostic arena.

Epilepsy due to PNPO mutations: genotype, environment and treatment affect presentation and outcome.

The first described patients with pyridox(am)ine 5'-phosphate oxidase deficiency all had neonatal onset seizures that did not respond to treatment with pyridoxine but responded to treatment with pyridoxal 5'-phosphate. Our data suggest, however, that the clinical spectrum of pyridox(am)ine 5'-phosphate oxidase deficiency is much broader than has been reported in the literature. Sequencing of the PNPO gene was undertaken for a cohort of 82 individuals who had shown a reduction in frequency and severity of seizures in response to pyridoxine or pyridoxal 5'-phosphate. Novel sequence changes were studied using a new cell-free expression system and a mass spectrometry-based assay for pyridoxamine phosphate oxidase. Three groups of patients with PNPO mutations that had reduced enzyme activity were identified: (i) patients with neonatal onset seizures responding to pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (n = 6); (ii) a patient with infantile spasms (onset 5 months) responsive to pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (n = 1); and (iii) patients with seizures starting under 3 months of age responding to pyridoxine (n = 8). Data suggest that certain genotypes (R225H/C and D33V) are more likely to result in seizures that to respond to treatment with pyridoxine. Other mutations seem to be associated with infertility, miscarriage and prematurity. However, the situation is clearly complex with the same combination of mutations being seen in patients who responded and did not respond to pyridoxine. It is possible that pyridoxine responsiveness in PNPO deficiency is affected by prematurity and age at the time of the therapeutic trial. Other additional factors that are likely to influence treatment response and outcome include riboflavin status and how well the foetus has been supplied with vitamin B6 by the mother. For some patients there was a worsening of symptoms on changing from pyridoxine to pyridoxal 5'-phosphate. Many of the mutations in PNPO affected residues involved in binding flavin mononucleotide or pyridoxal 5'-phosphate and many of them showed residual enzyme activity. One sequence change (R116Q), predicted to affect flavin mononucleotide binding and binding of the two PNPO dimers, and with high residual activity was found in Groups (ii) and (iii). This sequence change has been reported in the 1000 Genomes project suggesting it could be a polymorphism but alternatively it could be a common mutation, perhaps responsible for the susceptibility locus for genetic generalized epilepsy on 17q21.32 (close to rs72823592). We believe the reduction in PNPO activity and B6-responsive epilepsy in the patients reported here indicates that it contributes to the pathogenesis of epilepsy.

Genetic causes of infection induced encephalitis.

INTRODUCTION: Patients with encephalitis following a viral infection are often thought to have a para infectious, inflammatory, or autoimmune cause for their presentation. These diagnoses usually result in treatments with immunosuppressant therapies which can have side effects. However, there is an increasing body of evidence demonstrating that patients can have a direct genetic cause mediating viral infection triggered encephalitis, where inflammation is a secondary response. These patients may benefit not from immunosuppressive therapies, but from protection from infection through dedicated immunisation programs and early antiviral therapies at times of infection. METHODS: A small case series of paediatric neurology patients (n = 2) from a single institution with infection induced encephalitis and an underlying genetic cause, is presented. Patients with a confirmed genetic cause of infection induced encephalitis were identified and consented by their treating neurologist for inclusion in this case series. Ethics approval was gained for this case series and review of the surrounding literature. CONCLUSION: A case of both DBR1 and NUP214 genetic changes resulting in infection induced encephalitis is presented. This case series raises awareness of this rare group of disorders and provides clues to their identification. Features to prompt clinician consideration of such genetic conditions are also highlighted. Although rare, identification of these patients is important due to implications on treatment, prognosis, and family planning.