Molecular Cloning and Characteristics of a Lectin from the Bivalve Glycymeris yessoensis.

C-type lectins (CTLs) are a family of carbohydrate-binding proteins that mediate multiple biological events, including adhesion between cells, the turnover of serum glycoproteins, and innate immune system reactions to prospective invaders. Here, we describe the cDNA cloning of lectin from the bivalve Glycymeris yessoensis (GYL), which encodes 161 amino acids and the C-type carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) with EPN and WND motifs. The deduced amino acid sequence showed similarity to other CTLs. GYL is a glycoprotein containing two N-glycosylation sites per subunit. N-glycans are made up of xylose, mannose, D-glucosamine, 3-O-methylated galactose, D-quinovoses, and 3-O-methylated 6-deoxy-D-glucose. The potential CRD tertiary structure of the GYL adopted CTL-typical long-form double-loop structure and included three disulfide bridges at the bases of the loops. Additionally, when confirming the GYL sequence, eight isoforms of this lectin were identified. This fact indicates the presence of a multigene family of GYL-like C-type lectins in the bivalve G. yessoensis. Using the glycan microarray approach, natural carbohydrate ligands were established, and the glycotope for GYL was reconstructed as "Galß1-4GlcNAcß obligatory containing an additional fragment", like a sulfate group or a methyl group of fucose or N-acetylgalactosamine residues.

New l-Rhamnose-Binding Lectin from the Bivalve Glycymeris yessoensis: Purification, Partial Structural Characterization and Antibacterial Activity.

In this study, a new l-rhamnose-binding lectin (GYL-R) from the hemolymph of bivalve Glycymeris yessoensis was purified using affinity and ion-exchange chromatography and functionally characterized. Lectin antimicrobial activity was examined in different ways. The lectin was inhibited by saccharides possessing the same configuration of hydroxyl groups at C-2 and C-4, such as l-rhamnose, d-galactose, lactose, l-arabinose and raffinose. Using the glycan microarray approach, natural carbohydrate ligands were established for GYL-R as l-Rha and glycans containing the α-Gal residue in the terminal position. The GYL-R molecular mass determined by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry was 30,415 Da. The hemagglutination activity of the lectin was not affected by metal ions. The lectin was stable up to 75 °C and between pH 4.0 and 12.0. The amino acid sequence of the five GYL-R segments was obtained with nano-ESI MS/MS and contained both YGR and DPC-peptide motifs which are conserved in most of the l-rhamnose-binding lectin carbohydrate recognition domains. Circular dichroism confirmed that GYL is a α/ß-protein with a predominance of the random coil. Furthermore, GYL-R was able to bind and suppress the growth of the Gram-negative bacteria E. coli by recognizing lipopolysaccharides. Together, these results suggest that GYL-R is a new member of the RBL family which participates in the self-defense mechanism against bacteria and pathogens with a distinct carbohydrate-binding specificity.

Diversity of Cationic Antimicrobial Peptides in Black Cumin (Nigella sativa L.) Seeds.

Black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) is known to possess a wide variety of antimicrobial peptides belonging to different structural families. Three novel antimicrobial peptides have been isolated from black cumin seeds. Two of them were attributed as members of the non-specific lipid transfer proteins family, and one as a defensin. We have made an attempt of using the proteomic approach for novel antimicrobial peptides search in N. sativa seeds as well. The use of a well-established approach that includes extraction and fractionation stages remains relevant even in the case of novel peptides search because of the lacking N. sativa genome data. Novel peptides demonstrate a spectrum of antimicrobial activity against plant pathogenic organisms that may cause economically important crop diseases. These results obtained allow considering these molecules as candidates to be applied in "next-generation" biopesticides development for agricultural use.

C60 Fullerene Clusters Stabilize the Biologically Inactive Form of Topotecan.

There is a range of experimental proofs that biologically relevant compounds change their activity in the presence of C60 fullerene clusters in aqueous solution, which most frequently act as a nanoplatform for drug delivery. Inspired by this evidence, we made an effort to investigate the interaction of fullerene clusters with the antibiotic topotecan (TPT). This study proceeded in three steps, namely, UV/vis titration to confirm complexation and in vitro assays on proliferating and nonproliferating cells to elucidate the role of C60 fullerene in the putative change in TPT activity. Surprisingly, although the nonproliferating cell assay is consistent with the titration data and confirms complex formation, it contradicted the results of the proliferating cell assay. The latter showed that the mixture of TPT and fullerene affects the cells in the same way as pure TPT, as if there were no fullerenes in solution at all, whereas the action of TPT was expected to be enhanced. We explained this contradiction by the specific stabilization of the biologically inactive carboxylate form of the antibiotic adsorbed in the alkaline shell of large fullerene clusters, which leads to neutralization of the drug delivery function and almost zero net biological effect of the antibiotic in vitro. The practical outcome of the work is that fullerene clusters can be used for the selective delivery of pH-sensitive drug forms.

Rational Design of Plant Hairpin-like Peptide EcAMP1: Structural-Functional Correlations to Reveal Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity.

Plant antimicrobial peptides from the α-hairpinins family (hairpin-like peptides) are known to possess a wide range of biological activities. However, less is known about the structural determinants of their antimicrobial activity. Here, we suggest that spatial structure as well as surface charge and hydrophobicity level contribute to the antimicrobial properties of α-hairpinin EcAMP1 from barnyard grass (Echinochloa cruss-galli) seeds. To examine the role of the peptide spatial structure, two truncated forms of EcAMP1 restricted by inner and outer cysteine pairs were synthesized. It was shown that both truncated forms of EcAMP1 lost their antibacterial activity. In addition, their antifungal activity became weaker. To review the contribution of surface charge and hydrophobicity, another two peptides were designed. One of them carried single amino acid substitution from tryptophan to alanine residue at the 20th position. The second one represented a truncated form of the native EcAMP1 lacking six C-terminal residues. But the α-helix was kept intact. It was shown that the antifungal activity of both modified peptides weakened. Thereby we can conclude that the secondary structural integrity, hydrophobic properties, and surface charge all play roles in the antimicrobial properties of α-hairpinins. In addition, the antibacterial activity of cereal α-hairpinins against Gram-positive bacteria was described for the first time. This study expands on the knowledge of structure-function interactions in antimicrobial α-hairpinins.

Exploring Peptaibol's Profile, Antifungal, and Antitumor Activity of Emericellipsin A of Emericellopsis Species from Soda and Saline Soils.

Features of the biochemical adaptations of alkaliphilic fungi to exist in extreme environments could promote the production of active antibiotic compounds with the potential to control microorganisms, causing infections associated with health care. Thirty-eight alkaliphilic and alkalitolerant Emericellopsis strains (E. alkalina, E. cf. maritima, E. cf. terricola, Emericellopsis sp.) isolated from different saline soda soils and belonging to marine, terrestrial, and soda soil ecological clades were investigated for emericellipsin A (EmiA) biosynthesis, an antifungal peptaibol previously described for Emericellopsis alkalina. The analysis of the Emericellopsis sp. strains belonging to marine and terrestrial clades from chloride soils revealed another novel form with a mass of 1032.7 Da, defined by MALDI-TOF Ms/Ms spectrometers, as the EmiA lacked a hydroxyl (dEmiA). EmiA displayed strong inhibitory effects on cell proliferation and viability of HCT 116 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manners and induced apoptosis.

Oak bark (Quercus sp. cortex) protects plants through the inhibition of quorum sensing mediated virulence of Pectobacterium carotovorum.

Bacterial intercellular communication mediated by small diffusible molecules, known as quorum sensing (QS), is a common mechanism for regulating bacterial colonisation strategies and survival. Influence on QS by plant-derived molecules is proposed as a strategy for combating phytopathogens by modulating their virulence. This work builds upon other studies that have revealed plant-derived QS inhibitors extracted from oak bark (Quercus sp.). It was found that co-incubation of Pectobacterium carotovorum VKM-B-1247 with oak bark extract (OBE) reduced the production of acyl-HSL. This was accompanied by a dose-dependent decrease in the bacterial cellulolytic and protease activity. At the transcriptomic level, the OBE treatment suppressed the main QS-related genes expR/expI. Potato tubers pre-treated with OBE showed resistance to a manifestation of soft-rot symptoms. Analysis of the component composition of the OBE identified several biologically active molecules, such as n-hexadecanoic acid, 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol, butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), gamma-sitosterol, lupeol, and others. Molecular docking of the binding energy between identified molecules and homology models of LuxR-LuxI type proteins allow to identify potential inhibitors. Collectively, obtained results figure out great potential of widely distributed oak-derived plant material for bacterial control during storage of potato.

Seasonal changes in kinetic parameters of trypsin in gastric and agastric fish.

The objective of the present study was to assess if trypsin, a key enzyme involved in protein digestion, presents some kind of functional adaptations to seasonal changes in water temperature in freshwater fish. In order to test this hypothesis, individuals of two fish species Carassius gibelio (agastric) and Perca fluviatilis (gastric) were sampled in the basin of Chany Lake (Siberia, Russia) at two different seasons (spring and summer). Apparent kinetic parameters (Km and Vmax) were determined for both species and seasons at the actual pH values in fish guts, and at actual temperatures. Results showed a significant effect of both the species and sampling season on the apparent kinetic parameters of trypsin. In the case of Prussian carp, Km and Vmax were lower for each assayed temperature (for 5 and 15 °C the differences were significant) for fish sampled in summer when compared to those sampled in spring. In contrast, values of Km in perch tended to be lower in spring at 5 and 25 °C but these differences were not significant, while Vmax showed a significant decrease in summer samples. This suggests a sort of functional adaptation of the same trypsin enzymes to seasonal changes, oriented to maximize protein digestion under variable conditions.

Gausemycins†A,B: Cyclic Lipoglycopeptides from Streptomyces sp.*.

We report a novel family of natural lipoglycopeptides produced by Streptomyces sp. INA-Ac-5812. Two major components of the mixture, named gausemycins A and B, were isolated, and their structures were elucidated. The compounds are cyclic peptides with a unique peptide core and several remarkable structural features, including unusual positions of d-amino acids, lack of the Ca2+ -binding Asp-X-Asp-Gly (DXDG) motif, tyrosine glycosylation with arabinose, presence of 2-amino-4-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyric acid (Ahpb) and chlorinated kynurenine (ClKyn), and N-acylation of the ornithine side chain. Gausemycins have pronounced activity against Gram-positive bacteria. Mechanistic studies highlight significant differences compared to known glyco- and lipopeptides. Gausemycins exhibit only slight Ca2+ -dependence of activity and induce no pore formation at low concentrations. Moreover, there is no detectable accumulation of cell wall biosynthesis precursors under treatment with gausemycins.

4-Chloro-L-kynurenine as fluorescent amino acid in natural peptides.

4-Chloro-L-kynurenine (3-(4-chloroanthraniloyl)-L-alanine, L-4-ClKyn), an amino acid known as a prospective antidepressant, was recently for the first time found in nature in the lipopeptide antibiotic taromycin. Here, we report another instance of its identification in a natural product: 4-chloro-L-kynurenine was isolated from acidic hydrolysis of a new complex peptide antibiotic INA-5812. L-4-ClKyn is a fluorescent compound responsible for the fluorescence of the above antibiotic. Whereas fluorescence of 4-chlorokynurenine was not reported before, we synthesized the racemic compound and studied its emission in various solvents. Next, we prepared conjugates of DL-4-ClKyn with two suitable energy acceptors, BODIPY FL and 3-(phenylethynyl)perylene (PEPe), and studied fluorescence of the derivatives. 4-Chloro-DL-kynurenine emission is not detected in both conjugates, thus evidencing effective energy transfer. However, BODIPY FL emission in the conjugate is substantially reduced, probably due to collisional or photoinduced charge-transfer-mediated quenching. The intrinsic fluorescence of L-4-ClKyn amino acid in antibiotics paves the way for spectral studies of their mode of action.

A Novel Lipopeptaibol Emericellipsin A with Antimicrobial and Antitumor Activity Produced by the Extremophilic Fungus Emericellopsis alkalina.

Soil fungi are known to contain a rich variety of defense metabolites that allow them to compete with other organisms (fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and insects) and help them occupy more preferential areas at the expense of effective antagonism. These compounds possess antibiotic activity towards a wide range of other microbes, particularly fungi that belong to different taxonomical units. These compounds include peptaibols, which are non-ribosomal synthesized polypeptides containing non-standard amino acid residues (alpha-aminoisobutyric acid mandatory) and some posttranslational modifications. We isolated a novel antibiotic peptide from the culture medium of Emericellopsis alkalina, an alkalophilic strain. This peptide, called emericellipsin A, exhibited a strong antifungal effect against the yeast Candida albicans, the mold fungus Aspergillus niger, and human pathogen clinical isolates. It also exhibited antimicrobial activity against some Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Additionally, emericellipsin A showed a significant cytotoxic effect and was highly active against Hep G2 and HeLa tumor cell lines. We used NMR spectroscopy to reveal that this peptaibol is nine amino acid residues long and contains non-standard amino acids. The mode of molecular action of emericellipsin A is most likely associated with its effects on the membranes of cells. Emericellipsin A is rather short peptaibol and could be useful for the development of antifungal, antibacterial, or anti-tumor remedies.

Novel antifungal α-hairpinin peptide from Stellaria media seeds: structure, biosynthesis, gene structure and evolution.

Plant defense against disease is a complex multistage system involving initial recognition of the invading pathogen, signal transduction and activation of specialized genes. An important role in pathogen deterrence belongs to so-called plant defense peptides, small polypeptide molecules that present antimicrobial properties. Using multidimensional liquid chromatography, we isolated a novel antifungal peptide named Sm-AMP-X (33 residues) from the common chickweed (Stellaria media) seeds. The peptide sequence shows no homology to any previously described proteins. The peculiar cysteine arrangement (C(1)X3C(2)XnC(3)X3C(4)), however, allocates Sm-AMP-X to the recently acknowledged α-hairpinin family of plant defense peptides that share the helix-loop-helix fold stabilized by two disulfide bridges C(1)-C(4) and C(2)-C(3). Sm-AMP-X exhibits high broad-spectrum activity against fungal phytopathogens. We further showed that the N- and C-terminal "tail" regions of the peptide are important for both its structure and activity. The truncated variants Sm-AMP-X1 with both disulfide bonds preserved and Sm-AMP-X2 with only the internal S-S-bond left were progressively less active against fungi and presented largely disordered structure as opposed to the predominantly helical conformation of the full-length antifungal peptide. cDNA and gene cloning revealed that Sm-AMP-X is processed from a unique multimodular precursor protein that contains as many as 12 tandem repeats of α-hairpinin-like peptides. Structure of the sm-amp-x gene and two related pseudogenes sm-amp-x-ψ1 and sm-amp-x-ψ2 allows tracing the evolutionary scenario that led to generation of such a sophisticated precursor protein. Sm-AMP-X is a new promising candidate for engineering disease resistance in plants.

Recombinant Fusion Protein Containing Plant Nigellothionin Regulates the Growth of Food-Spoiling Fungus (Aspergillus niger).

This study aimed to obtain a recombinant chimeric protein named trx-NsW2 via theheterologous expression of the multifunctional antimicrobial peptide nigellothionin from black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) seeds in the Escherichia coli system. The protein was purified using a combination of Ni-NTA affinity chromatography and reversed-phase HPLC. Based on the HPLC calibration, the total yield of the protein was calculated to be 650 mg/L of bacterial culture. The fungistatic activity of trx-NsW2 against the food-spoiling fungus Aspergillus niger was demonstrated as itinhibited the maturation of conidiawithout affecting conidial germination or fungal growth. In contrast to mature nigellothionin NsW2, the fusion protein showeda low level of cytotoxicity towards both normal and tumor cell lines at concentrationsof up to 100-200 µM. Interestingly, at lower concentrations, it even stimulated cytokinesis. These findings are of critical importance for applying chimeric antimicrobial proteins obtained via microbiological synthesis in applied science.

Disulfide-stabilized helical hairpin structure and activity of a novel antifungal peptide EcAMP1 from seeds of barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli).

This study presents purification, activity characterization, and (1)H NMR study of the novel antifungal peptide EcAMP1 from kernels of barnyard grass Echinochloa crus-galli. The peptide adopts a disulfide-stabilized α-helical hairpin structure in aqueous solution and thus represents a novel fold among naturally occurring antimicrobial peptides. Micromolar concentrations of EcAMP1 were shown to inhibit growth of several fungal phytopathogens. Confocal microscopy revealed intensive EcAMP1 binding to the surface of fungal conidia followed by internalization and accumulation in the cytoplasm without disturbance of membrane integrity. Close spatial structure similarity between EcAMP1, the trypsin inhibitor VhTI from seeds of Veronica hederifolia, and some scorpion and cone snail toxins suggests natural elaboration of different functions on a common fold.

Staphylococcus aureus is able to generate resistance to novel lipoglycopeptide antibiotic gausemycin A.

Gausemycin A is the first member of the novel lipoglycopeptides family produced by Streptomyces roseoflavus INA-Ac-5812. Gausemycin A has a pronounced bactericidal activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. However, the ability of S. aureus to be resistant to gausemycin A has not been investigated yet. Using serial passaging, we have obtained the resistant variant S. aureus 5812R, which is 80 times more resistant compared to the parent strain. Susceptibility testing of S. aureus 5812R revealed the acquisition of cross-resistance to daptomycin, cefazolin, tetracycline, and gentamicin, while the resistance to vancomycin, nisin, and ramoplanin was absent. Whole genome sequencing revealed single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and deletions in S. aureus 5812R, among which are genes encoding efflux pump (sepA), the two-component Kdp system (kdpE), and the component of isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway (hepT). Phenotypically, S. aureus 5812R resembles a small-colony variant, as it is slow-growing, forms small colonies, and is deficient in pigments. Profiling of fatty acids (FA) composition constituting the cytoplasmic membrane of S. aureus 5812R revealed the prevalence of anteiso-branched FA, while straight FA was slightly less present. The evidence also showed that the gausemycin A-resistant strain has increased expression of the cls2 gene of the cardiolipin synthase. The performed checkerboard assay pointed out that the combination of gausemycin A and ciprofloxacin showed a synergistic effect against S. aureus 5812R.

Isolation and Characterization of a Novel Hydrophobin, Sa-HFB1, with Antifungal Activity from an Alkaliphilic Fungus, Sodiomyces alkalinus.

The adaptations that alkaliphilic microorganisms have developed due to their extreme habitats promote the production of active natural compounds with the potential to control microorganisms, causing infections associated with healthcare. The primary purpose of this study was to isolate and identify a hydrophobin, Sa-HFB1, from an alkaliphilic fungus, Sodiomyces alkalinus. A potential antifungal effect against pathogenic and opportunistic fungi strains was determined. The MICs of Sa-HFB1 against opportunistic and clinical fungi ranged from 1 to 8 µg/mL and confirmed its higher activity against both non- and clinical isolates. The highest level of antifungal activity (MIC 1 µg/mL) was demonstrated for the clinical isolate Cryptococcus neoformans 297 m. The hydrophobin Sa-HFB1 may be partly responsible for the reported antifungal activity of S. alkalinus, and may serve as a potential source of lead compounds, meaning that it can be developed as an antifungal drug candidate.

First Anti-Inflammatory Peptide AnmTX Sco 9a-1 from the Swimming Sea Anemone Stomphia coccinea.

A novel peptide AnmTX Sco 9a-1 with the ß-hairpin fold was isolated from the swimming sea anemone Stomphia coccinea (Actinostolidae family). The peptide consists of 28 amino acid residues, including modified hydroxyproline residue, and its measured molecular mass is 2960 Da. The peptide was not toxic on mice; however, it stimulated their exploratory motivation and active search behavior, and demonstrated an anti-anxiety effect. AnmTX Sco 9a-1 at doses of 0.1 and 1 mg/kg reduced the volume of edema during 24 h better than the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, Diclofenac, at dose of 1 mg/kg in a model of acute local λ-carrageenan-induced inflammation. ELISA analysis of the animal's blood showed that peptide at a dose of 1 mg/kg reduced the content of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), a pro-inflammatory mediator responsible in the edema development, up to the level of TNF-α in the intact group. Besides, AnmTX Sco 9a-1 demonstrated a significant analgesic effect on acute pain sensitivity in the carrageenan-induced thermal hyperalgesia model at doses of 0.1 and 1 mg/kg. Activity of AnmTX Sco 9a-1 was shown not to be associated with modulation of nociceptive ASIC channels.

Nigellothionins from Black Cumin (Nigella sativa L.) Seeds Demonstrate Strong Antifungal and Cytotoxic Activity.

High-cationic biologically active peptides of the thionins family were isolated from black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) seeds. According to their physicochemical characteristics, they were classified as representatives of the class I thionin subfamily. Novel peptides were called "Nigellothionins", so-called because of their source plant. Thionins are described as components of plant innate immunity to environmental stress factors. Nine nigellothionins were identified in the plant in different amounts. Complete amino acid sequences were determined for three of them, and a high degree of similarity was detected. Three nigellothionins were examined for antifungal properties against collection strains. The dominant peptide, NsW2, was also examined for activity against clinical isolates of fungi. Cytotoxic activity was determined for NsW2. Nigellothionins activity against all collection strains and clinical isolates varied from absence to a value comparable to amphotericin B, which can be explained by the presence of amino acid substitutions in their sequences. Cytotoxic activity in vitro for NsW2 was detected at sub-micromolar concentrations. This has allowed us to propose an alteration of the molecular mechanism of action at different concentrations. The results obtained suggest that nigellothionins are natural compounds that can be used as antimycotic and anti-proliferative agents.

The Emericellipsins A-E from an Alkalophilic Fungus Emericellopsis alkalina Show Potent Activity against Multidrug-Resistant Pathogenic Fungi.

Novel antimicrobial peptides with antifungal and cytotoxic activity were derived from the alkalophilic fungus Emericellopsis alkalina VKPM F1428. We previously reported that this strain produced emericellipsin A (EmiA), which has strong antifungal and cytotoxic properties. Further analyses of the metabolites obtained under a special alkaline medium resulted in the isolation of four new homologous (Emi B-E). In this work, we report the complete primary structure and detailed biological activity for the newly synthesized nonribosomal antimicrobial peptides called emericellipsins B-E. The inhibitory activity of themajor compound, EmiA, against drug-resistant pathogenic fungi was similar to that of amphotericin B (AmpB). At the same time, EmiA had no hemolytic activity towards human erythrocytes. In addition, EmiA demonstrated low cytotoxic activity towards the normal HPF line, but possessed cancer selectivity to the K-562 and HCT-116 cell lines. Emericillipsins from the alkalophilic fungus Emericellopsis alkaline are promising treatment alternatives to licensed antifungal drugs for invasive mycosis therapy, especially for multidrug-resistant aspergillosis and cryptococcosis.

High Resistance of Potato to Early Blight Is Achieved by Expression of the Pro-SmAMP1 Gene for Hevein-Like Antimicrobial Peptides from Common Chickweed (Stellaria media).

In the common chickweed Stellaria media, two antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), SmAMP1.1a and SmAMP1.2a, have been shown to be proteolytically released as products of the expression of a single gene, proSmAMP1. In this study, the gene proSmAMP1 was introduced into two potato varieties, Zhukovsky ranny and Udacha. These early-maturing varieties were shown to be susceptible to early blight caused by Alternaria spp. Most transgenic lines of either variety having strong expression of the target gene demonstrated high levels of resistance to Alternaria spp. during three years of cultivation, but did not otherwise differ from the initial varieties. Disease severity index (DSI) was introduced as a complex measure of plant susceptibility to early blight, taking into account the diameter of lesions caused by the Alternaria spp., the fungus sporulation intensity and its incubation period duration. Across all transgenic lines, the DSI inversely correlated both with the target gene expression and the copy number in the plant genome. Our results are promising for improving the resistance of potato and other crops to early blight by expression of AMPs from wild plants.