Live Cell Imaging Reveals the Relocation of dsRNA Binding Proteins Upon Viral Infection.

Viral infection triggers a range of plant responses such as the activation of the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway. The double-stranded RNA binding (DRB) proteins DRB3 and DRB4 are part of this pathway and aid in defending against DNA and RNA viruses, respectively. Using live cell imaging, we show that DRB2, DRB3, and DRB5 relocate from their uniform cytoplasmic distribution to concentrated accumulation in nascent viral replication complexes (VRC) that develop following cell invasion by viral RNA. Inactivation of the DRB3 gene in Arabidopsis by T-DNA insertion rendered these plants less able to repress RNA viral replication. We propose a model for the early stages of virus defense in which DRB2, DRB3, and DRB5 are invasion sensors that relocate to nascent VRC, where they bind to viral RNA and inhibit virus replication.

Extremely stable Piwi-induced gene silencing in Caenorhabditis elegans.

In recent years, the Piwi pathway has been shown to regulate the silencing of mobile genetic elements. However, we know little about how Piwi pathways impose silencing and even less about trans-generational stability of Piwi-induced silencing. We demonstrate that the Caenorhabditis elegans Piwi protein PRG-1 can initiate an extremely stable form of gene silencing on a transgenic, single-copy target. This type of silencing is faithfully maintained over tens of generations in the absence of a functional Piwi pathway. Interestingly, RNAi can also trigger permanent gene silencing of a single-copy transgene and the phenomenon will be collectively referred to as RNA-induced epigenetic silencing (RNAe). RNAe can act in trans and is dependent on endogenous RNAi factors. The involvement of factors known to act in nuclear RNAi and the fact that RNAe is accompanied by repressive chromatin marks indicate that RNAe includes a transcriptional silencing component. Our results demonstrate that, at least in C. elegans, the Piwi pathway can impose a state of gene silencing that borders on 'permanently silent'. Such a property may be more widely conserved among Piwi pathways in different animals.

Hen1 is required for oocyte development and piRNA stability in zebrafish.

Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are germ line-specific small RNA molecules that have a function in genome defence and germ cell development. They associate with a specific class of Argonaute proteins, named Piwi, and function through an RNA interference-like mechanism. piRNAs carry a 2'-O-methyl modification at their 3' end, which is added by the Hen1 enzyme. We show that zebrafish hen1 is specifically expressed in germ cells and is essential for maintaining a female germ line, whereas it is dispensable in the testis. Hen1 protein localizes to nuage through its C-terminal domain, but is not required for nuage formation. In hen1 mutant testes, piRNAs become uridylated and adenylated. Uridylation frequency is highest on retro-transposon-derived piRNAs and is accompanied by decreased piRNA levels and mild derepression of transposon transcripts. Altogether, our data suggest the existence of a uridylation-mediated 3'-5' exonuclease activity acting on piRNAs in zebrafish germ cells, which is counteracted by nuage-bound Hen1 protein. This system discriminates between piRNA targets and is required for ovary development and fully efficient transposon silencing.

Single-Molecule Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (smFISH) on Whole-Mount Planarians.

Since the establishment of planarian species as laboratory models, investigation of molecular pathways has relied heavily on visualization of transcripts using in situ hybridization (ISH). ISH has revealed various aspects ranging from anatomical details of different organs to distribution of planarian stem cell populations and signaling pathways involved in their unique regenerative response. High-throughput sequencing techniques including single-cell approaches have allowed us to investigate gene expression and cell lineages in more detail. One application that could provide important new insights into more subtle intercellular transcriptional differences and intracellular mRNA localization is single-molecule fluorescent in situ hybridization (smFISH). In addition to obtaining an overview of the expression pattern, this technique allows for single-molecule resolution and hence quantification of a transcript population. This is achieved by hybridization of individual oligonucleotides antisense to a transcript of interest, all carrying a single fluorescent label. This way, a signal is produced only when the combination of labelled oligonucleotides, targeting the same transcript, are hybridized, minimizing background and off-target effects. Moreover, it requires only a few steps compared to the conventional ISH protocol and thus saves time. Here we describe a protocol for the tissue preparation, probe synthesis, and smFISH, combined with immunohistochemistry, for whole-mount Schmidtea mediterranea samples.

Isolation and Processing of Bovine Oocytes for Small RNA Sequencing.

In modern biomedical research, mice have been the mammalian model system of choice to investigate molecular pathways for potential future medical applications. Over the last years, it has become clear that female mice employ an exceptional piRNA pathway-independent mechanism to neutralize transposon activity in the ovary. In other model organisms studied to date, the piRNA pathway is indispensable for efficient targeting of transposable elements and fertility in both males and females. Moreover, recent studies have demonstrated that in other mammals, including humans, the piRNA pathway is highly active in the female germline as well, indicating that the situation in the mouse female germline is anomalous. For this reason, novel models to study piRNA pathways in female mammalian germlines are currently emerging, including Bos taurus. Here we describe a protocol for isolation and downstream processing of female bovine tissues in order to perform downstream applications including piRNA sequencing.

Ischemic tolerance and cardiac repair in the spiny mouse (Acomys).

Ischemic heart disease and by extension myocardial infarction is the primary cause of death worldwide, warranting regenerative therapies to restore heart function. Current models of natural heart regeneration are restricted in that they are not of adult mammalian origin, precluding the study of class-specific traits that have emerged throughout evolution, and reducing translatability of research findings to humans. Here, we present the spiny mouse (Acomys spp.), a murid rodent that exhibits bona fide regeneration of the back skin and ear pinna, as a model to study heart repair. By comparing them to ordinary mice (Mus musculus), we show that the acute injury response in spiny mice is similar, but with an associated tolerance to infarction through superior survivability, improved ventricular conduction, and near-absence of pathological remodeling. Critically, spiny mice display increased vascularization, altered scar organization, and a more immature phenotype of cardiomyocytes, with a corresponding improvement in heart function. These findings present new avenues for mammalian heart research by leveraging unique tissue properties of the spiny mouse.

PIWIL3 Forms a Complex with TDRKH in Mammalian Oocytes.

P-element induced wimpy testis (PIWIs) are crucial guardians of genome integrity, particularly in germ cells. While mammalian PIWIs have been primarily studied in mouse and rat, a homologue for the human PIWIL3 gene is absent in the Muridae family, and hence the unique function of PIWIL3 in germ cells cannot be effectively modeled by mouse knockouts. Herein, we investigated the expression, distribution, and interaction of PIWIL3 in bovine oocytes. We localized PIWIL3 to mitochondria, and demonstrated that PIWIL3 expression is stringently controlled both spatially and temporally before and after fertilization. Moreover, we identified PIWIL3 in a mitochondrial-recruited three-membered complex with Tudor and KH domain-containing protein (TDRKH) and poly(A)-specific ribonuclease-like domain containing 1 (PNLDC1), and demonstrated by mutagenesis that PIWIL3 N-terminal arginines are required for complex assembly. Finally, we sequenced the piRNAs bound to PIWIL3-TDRKH-PNLDC1 and report here that about 50% of these piRNAs map to transposable elements, recapitulating the important role of PIWIL3 in maintaining genome integrity in mammalian oocytes.

Tdrd6a Regulates the Aggregation of Buc into Functional Subcellular Compartments that Drive Germ Cell Specification.

Phase separation represents an important form of subcellular compartmentalization. However, relatively little is known about how the formation or disassembly of such compartments is regulated. In zebrafish, the Balbiani body (Bb) and the germ plasm (Gp) are intimately linked phase-separated structures essential for germ cell specification and home to many germ cell-specific mRNAs and proteins. Throughout development, these structures occur as a single large aggregate (Bb), which disperses throughout oogenesis and upon fertilization accumulates again into relatively large assemblies (Gp). Formation of the Bb requires Bucky ball (Buc), a protein with prion-like properties. We found that the multi-tudor domain-containing protein Tdrd6a interacts with Buc, affecting its mobility and aggregation properties. Importantly, lack of this regulatory interaction leads to significant defects in germ cell development. Our work presents insights into how prion-like protein aggregations can be regulated and highlights the biological relevance of such regulatory events.

Piwi proteins and piRNAs in mammalian oocytes and early embryos: From sample to sequence.

The role of the Piwi/piRNA pathway during mammalian oogenesis has remained enigmatic thus far, especially since experiments with Piwi knockout mice did not reveal any phenotypic defects in female individuals. This is in striking contrast with results obtained from other species including flies and zebrafish. In mouse oocytes, however, only low levels of piRNAs are found and they are not required for their function. We recently demonstrated dynamic expression of PIWIL1, PIWIL2, and PIWIL3 during mammalian oogenesis and early embryogenesis. In addition, small RNA analysis of human, crab-eating macaque and cattle revealed that piRNAs are also expressed in the female germline and closely resemble piRNAs from testis. Here, we thoroughly describe the experimental and computational methods that we applied for the generation, processing and analyses of next generation sequencing (NGS) data associated with our study on Piwi proteins and piRNAs in mammalian oocytes and embryos (Roovers et al., 2015). The complete sequence data is available at NCBI's Gene Expression Omnibus (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/) under the accession GSE64942.

Piwi proteins and piRNAs in mammalian oocytes and early embryos.

Germ cells of most animals critically depend on piRNAs and Piwi proteins. Surprisingly, piRNAs in mouse oocytes are relatively rare and dispensable. We present compelling evidence for strong Piwi and piRNA expression in oocytes of other mammals. Human fetal oocytes express PIWIL2 and transposon-enriched piRNAs. Oocytes in adult human ovary express PIWIL1 and PIWIL2, whereas those in bovine ovary only express PIWIL1. In human, macaque, and bovine ovaries, we find piRNAs that resemble testis-borne pachytene piRNAs. Isolated bovine follicular oocytes were shown to contain abundant, relatively short piRNAs that preferentially target transposable elements. Using label-free quantitative proteome analysis, we show that these maturing oocytes strongly and specifically express the PIWIL3 protein, alongside other, known piRNA-pathway components. A piRNA pool is still present in early bovine embryos, revealing a potential impact of piRNAs on mammalian embryogenesis. Our results reveal that there are highly dynamic piRNA pathways in mammalian oocytes and early embryos.

MUT-14 and SMUT-1 DEAD box RNA helicases have overlapping roles in germline RNAi and endogenous siRNA formation.

More than 2,000 C. elegans genes are targeted for RNA silencing by the mutator complex, a specialized small interfering RNA (siRNA) amplification module which is nucleated by the Q/N-rich protein MUT-16. The mutator complex localizes to Mutator foci adjacent to P granules at the nuclear periphery in germ cells. Here, we show that the DEAD box RNA helicase smut-1 functions redundantly in the mutator pathway with its paralog mut-14 during RNAi. Mutations in both smut-1 and mut-14 also cause widespread loss of endogenous siRNAs. The targets of mut-14 and smut-1 largely overlap with the targets of other mutator class genes; however, the mut-14 smut-1 double mutant and the mut-16 mutant display the most dramatic depletion of siRNAs, suggesting that they act at a similarly early step in siRNA formation. mut-14 and smut-1 are predominantly expressed in the germline and, unlike other mutator class genes, are specifically required for RNAi targeting germline genes. A catalytically inactive, dominant-negative missense mutant of MUT-14 is RNAi defective in vivo; however, mutator complexes containing the mutant protein retain the ability to synthesize siRNAs in vitro. The results point to a role for mut-14 and smut-1 in initiating siRNA amplification in germ cell Mutator foci, possibly through the recruitment or retention of target mRNAs.