Metal-Free Click-Chemistry: A Powerful Tool for Fabricating Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications.

Increasing interest in the utilization of hydrogels in various areas of biomedical sciences ranging from biosensing and drug delivery to tissue engineering has necessitated the synthesis of these materials using efficient and benign chemical transformations. In this regard, the advent of "click" chemistry revolutionized the design of hydrogels and a range of efficient reactions was utilized to obtain hydrogels with increased control over their physicochemical properties. The ability to apply the "click" chemistry paradigm to both synthetic and natural polymers as hydrogel precursors further expanded the utility of this chemistry in network formation. In particular, the ability to integrate clickable handles at predetermined locations in polymeric components enables the formation of well-defined networks. Although, in the early years of "click" chemistry, the copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition was widely employed, recent years have focused on the use of metal-free "click" transformations, since residual metal impurities may interfere with or compromise the biological function of such materials. Furthermore, many of the non-metal-catalyzed "click" transformations enable the fabrication of injectable hydrogels, as well as the fabrication of microstructured gels using spatial and temporal control. This review article summarizes the recent advances in the fabrication of hydrogels using various metal-free "click" reactions and highlights the applications of thus obtained materials. One could envision that the use of these versatile metal-free "click" reactions would continue to revolutionize the design of functional hydrogels geared to address unmet needs in biomedical sciences.

Plug-and-Play Biointerfaces: Harnessing Host-Guest Interactions for Fabrication of Functional Polymeric Coatings.

Polymeric surface coatings capable of effectively integrating desired functional molecules and ligands are attractive for fabricating bio-interfaces necessary for various applications. Herein, we report the design of a polymeric platform amenable to such modifications in a modular fashion through host-guest chemistry. Copolymers containing adamantane (Ada) moieties, diethylene glycol (DEG) units, and silyloxy groups to provide functionalization handles, anti-biofouling character, and surface attachment, respectively, were synthesized. These copolymers were employed to modify silicon/glass surfaces to enable their functionalization using beta-cyclodextrin (ßCD) containing functional molecules and bioactive ligands. Moreover, surface functionalization could be spatially controlled using a well-established technique like microcontact printing. Efficient and robust functionalization of polymer-coated surfaces was demonstrated by immobilizing a ßCD-conjugated fluorescent rhodamine dye through the specific noncovalent binding between Ada and ßCD units. Furthermore, biotin, mannose, and cell adhesive peptide-modified ßCD were immobilized onto the Ada-containing polymer-coated surfaces to direct noncovalent conjugation of streptavidin, concanavalin A (ConA), and fibroblast cells, respectively. It was demonstrated that the mannose-functionalized coating could selectively bind to the target lectin ConA, and the interface could be regenerated and reused several times. Moreover, the polymeric coating was adaptable for cell attachment and proliferation upon noncovalent modification with cell-adhesive peptides. One can envision that the facile synthesis of the Ada-based copolymers, mild conditions for coating surfaces, and their effective transformation to various functional interfaces in a modular fashion offers an attractive approach to engineering functional interfaces for several biomedical applications.

Redox-Responsive Hydrogels for Tunable and "On-Demand" Release of Biomacromolecules.

In recent years, stimuli-responsive degradation has emerged as a desirable design criterion for functional hydrogels to tune the release of encapsulated payload as well as ensure degradation of the gel upon completion of its function. Herein, redox-responsive hydrogels with a well-defined network structure were obtained using a highly efficient thiol-disulfide exchange reaction. In particular, gelation occurred upon combining thiol-terminated tetra-arm polyethylene glycol (PEG) polymers with linear telechelic PEG-based polymers containing pyridyl disulfide units at their chain ends. Rapid gelation proceeds with good conversions (>85%) to yield macroporous hydrogels possessing high water uptake. Furthermore, due to the presence of the disulfide linkages, the thus-obtained hydrogels can self-heal. The obtained hydrogels undergo complete degradation when exposed to environments rich in thiol-containing agents such as dithiothreitol (DTT) and L-glutathione (GSH). Also, the release profile of encapsulated protein, namely, bovine serum albumin, can be tuned by varying the molecular weight of the polymeric precursors. Additionally, it was demonstrated that complete dissolution of the hydrogel to rapidly release the encapsulated protein occurs upon treating these hydrogels with DTT. Cytotoxicity evaluation of the hydrogels and their degradation products indicated the benign nature of these hydrogels. Additionally, the cytocompatible nature of these materials was also evident from a live/dead cell viability assay. One can envision that the facile fabrication and their ability to degrade on-demand and release their payload will make these benign polymeric scaffolds attractive for various biomedical applications.

"Clickable" Polymer Brush Interfaces: Tailoring Monovalent to Multivalent Ligand Display for Protein Immobilization and Sensing.

Facile and effective functionalization of the interface of polymer-coated surfaces allows one to dictate the interaction of the underlying material with the chemical and biological analytes in its environment. Herein, we outline a modular approach that would enable installing a variety of "clickable" handles onto the surface of polymer brushes, enabling facile conjugation of various ligands to obtain functional interfaces. To this end, hydrophilic anti-biofouling poly(ethylene glycol)-based polymer brushes are fabricated on glass-like silicon oxide surfaces using reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The dithioester group at the chain-end of the polymer brushes enabled the installation of azide, maleimide, and terminal alkene functional groups, using a post-polymerization radical exchange reaction with appropriately functionalized azo-containing molecules. Thus, modified polymer brushes underwent facile conjugation of alkyne or thiol-containing dyes and ligands using alkyne-azide cycloaddition, Michael addition, and radical thiol-ene conjugation, respectively. Moreover, we demonstrate that the radical exchange approach also enables the installation of multivalent motifs using dendritic azo-containing molecules. Terminal alkene groups containing dendrons amenable to functionalization with thiol-containing molecules using the radical thiol-ene reaction were installed at the interface and subsequently functionalized with mannose ligands to enable sensing of the Concanavalin A lectin.

Fast-Forming Dissolvable Redox-Responsive Hydrogels: Exploiting the Orthogonality of Thiol-Maleimide and Thiol-Disulfide Exchange Chemistry.

Fast-forming yet easily dissolvable hydrogels (HGs) have potential applications in wound healing, burn incidences, and delivery of therapeutic agents. Herein, a combination of a thiol-maleimide conjugation and thiol-disulfide exchange reaction is employed to fabricate fast-forming HGs which rapidly dissolve upon exposure to dithiothreitol (DTT), a nontoxic thiol-containing hydrophilic molecule. In particular, maleimide disulfide-terminated telechelic linear poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) polymer and PEG-based tetrathiol macromonomers are employed as gel precursors, which upon mixing yield HGs within a minute. The selectivity of the thiol-maleimide conjugation in the presence of a disulfide linkage was established through 1H NMR spectroscopy and Ellman's test. Rapid degradation of HGs in the presence of thiol-containing solution was evident from the reduction in storage modulus. HGs encapsulated with fluorescent dye-labeled dextran polymers and bovine serum albumin were fabricated, and their cargo release was investigated under passive and active conditions upon exposure to DTT. One can envision that the rapid gelation and fast on-demand dissolution under relatively benign conditions would make these polymeric materials attractive for a range of biomedical applications.

Thiol-Reactive Clickable Cryogels: Importance of Macroporosity and Linkers on Biomolecular Immobilization.

Macroporous cryogels that are amenable to facile functionalization are attractive platforms for biomolecular immobilization, a vital step for fabrication of scaffolds necessary for areas like tissue engineering and diagnostic sensing. In this work, thiol-reactive porous cryogels are obtained via photopolymerization of a furan-protected maleimide-containing poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based methacrylate (PEGFuMaMA) monomer. A series of cryogels are prepared using varying amounts of the masked hydrophilic PEGFuMaMA monomer, along with poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate and poly(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate, a hydrophilic monomer and cross-linker, respectively, in the presence of a photoinitiator. Subsequent activation to the thiol-reactive form of the furan-protected maleimide groups is performed through the retro Diels-Alder reaction. As a demonstration of direct protein immobilization, bovine serum albumin is immobilized onto the cryogels. Furthermore, ligand-directed immobilization of proteins is achieved by first attaching mannose- or biotin-thiol onto the maleimide-containing platforms, followed by ligand-directed immobilization of concanavalin A or streptavidin, respectively. Additionally, we demonstrate that the extent of immobilized proteins can be controlled by varying the amount of thiol-reactive maleimide groups present in the cryogel matrix. Compared to traditional hydrogels, cryogels demonstrate enhanced protein immobilization/detection. Additionally, it is concluded that utilization of a longer linker, distancing the thiol-reactive maleimide group from the gel scaffold, considerably increases protein immobilization. It can be envisioned that the facile fabrication, conjugation, and control over the extent of functionalization of these cryogels will make these materials desirable scaffolds for numerous biomedical applications.

Fabrication of Patterned Hydrogel Interfaces: Exploiting the Maleimide Group as a Dual Purpose Handle for Cross-Linking and Bioconjugation.

Functional hydrogels that can be obtained through facile fabrication procedures and subsequently modified using straightforward reagent-free methods are indispensable materials for biomedical applications such as sensing and diagnostics. Herein a novel hydrogel platform is obtained using polymeric precursors containing the maleimide functional group as a side chain. The maleimide groups play a dual role in fabrication of functional hydrogels. They enable photochemical cross-linking of the polymers to yield bulk and patterned hydrogels. Moreover, the maleimide group can be used as a handle for efficient functionalization using the thiol-maleimide conjugation and Diels-Alder cycloaddition click reactions. Obtained hydrogels are characterized in terms of their morphology, water uptake capacity, and functionalization. Micropatterned hydrogels are obtained under UV-irradiation using a photomask to obtain reactive micropatterns, which undergo facile functionalization upon treatment with thiol-containing functional molecules such as fluorescent dyes and bioactive ligands. The maleimide group also undergoes conjugation through the Diels-Alder reaction, where the attached molecule can be released through thermal treatment via the retro Diels-Alder reaction. The antibiofouling nature of these hydrogel micropatterns enables efficient ligand-directed biomolecular immobilization, as demonstrated by attachment of streptavidin-coated quantum dots.

Dendron-Polymer Conjugate Based Cross-Linked Micelles: A Robust and Versatile Nanosystem for Targeted Delivery.

Among various nanomedicine platforms, biodegradable polymeric micelles offer a viable approach to targeted cancer therapy. Herein, we report fabrication of core-cross-linked micelles using dendron-polymer conjugates as building blocks. Hydrophobic polyester dendrons containing peripheral alkene groups are conjugated to a hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) based copolymer bearing activated ester groups for appending an amine-containing peptide based targeting group, namely, cRGDfK. Micellar constructs assembled in aqueous media were cross-linked using a tetra-thiol molecule via the photochemical thiol-ene reaction. Cross-linked and non-cross-linked micelles were compared in terms of their critical micellar concentration, stability, drug loading, and drug release characteristics. It was observed that the cross-linked micelles were stable upon excessive dilution compared to their non-cross-linked counterparts. Importantly, the amount of passive drug release in neutral pH was considerably lower for the cross-linked micellar systems. Furthermore, treatment of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells with nontargeted and targeted cross-linked micelles demonstrated higher internalization of the targeted construct. In corroboration, in vitro assay revealed that drug loaded targeted micelles possessed higher cytotoxicity than the nontargeted ones. Facile fabrication of this modular platform which can carry a desired therapeutic agent and be conjugated with appropriate targeting units, along with the attributes necessary to serve as a viable drug delivery system, offers a platform with potential for addressing various challenges in the field of micellar drug delivery.

Multi-Functional Nanogels as Theranostic Platforms: Exploiting Reversible and Nonreversible Linkages for Targeting, Imaging, and Drug Delivery.

Nanogels that are amenable to facile multi-functionalization with imaging, therapeutic, and targeting agents are attractive theranostic platforms for addressing challenges in conventional diagnostics and therapy. In this work, reactive copolymers containing poly(ethylene glycol), maleimide, and pendant hydroxyl groups as side chains are used to construct nanogels by employing their thermoresponsive self-assembly in aqueous media. Subsequent cross-linking of these nanosized aggregates with dithiols using thiol-maleimide chemistry yields nanogels containing maleimide, thiol, and hydroxyl groups. The hydroxyl groups are readily activated to N-hydroxysuccinimide based carbonates that undergo conjugation with amine-containing molecules through carbamate linkage under mild conditions. As a demonstration of multi-functionalization, the maleimide, thiol, and activated carbonate groups were functionalized with a thiol-containing cancer cell targeting peptide, a maleimide-containing fluorescent indocyanine Cy5 dye, and an anticancer drug doxorubicin, respectively. It was observed that enhanced drug release from nanogels occurs under acidic conditions. While the parent nanogel vehicles did not possess any toxicity, drug conjugated constructs with and without targeting group were cytotoxic against MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. The cyclic peptide containing targeted nanogel exhibited slightly higher cytotoxicity than its counterpart devoid of any targeting group. Furthermore, higher level of drug internalization into MDA-MB-231 cells was observed for the targeting group containing construct. It can be envisioned that facile fabrication and multi-functionalization of these reactive nanogels simultaneously through nonreversible and reversible linkages offers a modular platform that can be configured as a theranostic agent for addressing challenges in conventional therapy of various diseases.

Drug Delivery Systems from Self-Assembly of Dendron-Polymer Conjugates †.

This review highlights the utilization of dendron-polymer conjugates as building blocks for the fabrication of nanosized drug delivery vehicles. The examples given provide an overview of the evolution of these delivery platforms, from simple micellar containers to smart stimuli- responsive drug delivery systems through their design at the macromolecular level. Variations in chemical composition and connectivity of the dendritic and polymeric segments provide a variety of self-assembled micellar nanostructures that embody desirable attributes of viable drug delivery systems.

Hooked on Cryogels: A Carbamate Linker Based Depot for Slow Drug Release.

Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) based bulk hydrogels and cryogels containing activated carbonate groups as amine reactive handles to facilitate drug conjugations through carbamate linkages were fabricated and evaluated as slow releasing drug reservoirs. As an initial approach, photopolymerization of N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS)-activated carbonate functional group containing monomer and PEG-methacrylate in the presence of a cross-linker was utilized to obtain bulk hydrogels with high gel conversions. The resultant hydrogels possessed moderate water uptake (170-340%) which was dependent on the monomer ratios. These hydrogels were functionalized with an anticancer drug, namely, doxorubicin. Surprisingly, while negligible drug release was observed from the bulk hydrogels under normal pH, only about 6% drug release was observed under acidic condition. Limited swelling of these hydrogels as well as lack of porous structure as deduced from scanning electron microscopy analysis might explain the poor drug release. To enhance the drug releasing capacity of these hydrogels that might stem from the increased porosity, reactive carbonate group bearing cryogels were synthesized. Compared to the bulk hydrogels, cryogels were highly porous in structure and also possessed much higher swelling capacity (1150-1500%). As a result of these distinctions, a 7-fold enhancement in drug release was observed for the cryogel system compared to the relating hydrogel. In vitro studies demonstrated that the anticancer drug doxorubicin conjugated through carbamate linkers to the cryogels was released and proved effective against MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. Overall, a novel class of slow releasing nontoxic hydrogel and cryogel scaffolds with potential applications as anticancer drug reservoirs was realized.

Designing Dendron-Polymer Conjugate Based Targeted Drug Delivery Platforms with a "Mix-and-Match" Modularity.

Polymeric micellar systems are emerging as a very important class of nanopharmaceuticals due to their ability to improve pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of chemotherapy drugs, as well as to reduce related systemic toxicities. While these nanosized delivery systems inherently benefit from passive targeting through the enhanced permeation and retention effect leading to increased accumulation in the tumor, additional active targeting can be achieved through surface modification of micelles with targeting groups specific for overexpressed receptors of tumor cells. In this project, nontoxic, biodegradable, and modularly tunable micellar delivery systems were generated using two types of dendron-polymer conjugates. Either an AB type dendron-polymer construct with 2K PEG or an ABA type dendron-polymer-dendron conjugate with 6K PEG based middle block was used as primary construct; along with an AB type dendron-polymer containing a cRGDfK targeting group to actively target cancer cells overexpressing αυß3/αυß5 integrins. A set of micelles encapsulating docetaxel, a widely employed chemotherapy drug, were prepared with varying feed ratios of primary construct and targeting group containing secondary construct. Critical micelle concentrations of all micellar systems were in the range of 10-6 M. DLS measurements indicated hydrodynamic size distributions varying between 170 to 200 nm. An increase in docetaxel release at acidic pH was observed for all micelles. Enhanced cellular internalization of Nile red doped micelles by MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells suggested that the most efficient uptake was observed with targeted micelles. In vitro cytotoxicity experiments on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer and A549 lung carcinoma cell lines showed improved toxicity for RGD containing micelles. For A549 cell line EC50 values of drug loaded micellar sets were in the range of 10-9 M whereas EC50 value of free docetaxel was around 10-10 M. For MDA-MB-231 cell line EC50 value of free docetaxel was 6 × 10-8 M similar to EC50 of nontargeted AB type docetaxel doped micellar constructs whereas the EC50 value of its targeted counterpart decreased to 5.5 × 10-9 M. Overall, in this comparative study, the targeting group containing micellar construct fabricated with a 2 kDa PEG based diblock dendron-polymer conjugate emerges as an attractive drug delivery vehicle due to the ease of synthesis, high stability of the micelles, and efficient targeting.

Diels-Alder "Clickable" Biodegradable Nanofibers: Benign Tailoring of Scaffolds for Biomolecular Immobilization and Cell Growth.

Biodegradable polymeric nanofibers have emerged as promising candidates for several biomedical applications such as tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Many of these applications require modification of these nanofibers with small ligands or biomolecules such as peptides and other growth factors, which necessitates functionalization of these materials in mild and benign fashion. This study reports the design, synthesis, and functionalization of such nanofibers and evaluates their application as a cell culture scaffold. Polylactide based copolymers containing furan groups and triethylene glycol (TEG) units as side chains were synthesized using organocatalyzed ring opening polymerization. The furan moiety, an electron rich diene, provides "clickable" handles required for modification of nanofibers since they undergo facile cycloaddition reactions with maleimide-containing small molecules and ligands. The TEG units provide these fibers with hydrophilicity, enhanced biodegradability, and antibiofouling characteristics to minimize nonspecific adsorption. A series of copolymers with varying amounts of TEG units in their side chains were evaluated for fiber formation and antibiofouling characteristics to reveal that an incorporation of 7.5 mol % TEG-based monomer was optimal for nanofibers containing 20 mol % furan units. Facile functionalization of these nanofibers in a selective manner was demonstrated through attachment of a dienophile containing fluorophore, namely, fluorescein maleimide. To show efficient ligand-mediated bioconjugation, nanofibers were functionalized with a maleimide appended biotin, which enabled efficient attachment of the protein, Streptavidin. Importantly, the crucial role played by the TEG-based side chains was evident due to lack of any nonspecific attachment of protein to these nanofibers in the absence of biotin ligand. Furthermore, these nanofibers were conjugated with a cell adhesive cyclic peptide, cRGDfK-maleimide, at room temperature without the need of any additional catalyst. Importantly, comparison of the cell attachment onto nanofibers with and without the peptide demonstrated that fibers appended with the peptides promoted cells to spread nicely and protrude actin filaments for enhanced attachment to the support, whereas the cells on nonfunctionalized nanofibers showed a rounded up morphology with limited cellular spreading.

Targeting to the Bone: Alendronate-Directed Combretastatin A-4 Bearing Antiangiogenic Polymer-Drug Conjugates.

Selective targeting of tumor site with chemotherapeutic agents appears to be one of the most effective methods to address many of the problems encountered with conventional chemotherapy. In this work, poly(oligoethylene glycol)methacrylate (POEGMA) based bone-targeting polymers bearing an antiangiogenic drug combretastatin A4 (CA4) were synthesized using free radical polymerization. Targeted and nontargeting copolymers were evaluated for their bone targeting efficiency, cytotoxicities against endothelial cells, namely, HUVECs and U2-OS and Saos-2 cancerous cell lines, as well as their antiangiogenic activity against endothelial cell tube formation by HUVECs. It is observed that the drug conjugated polymers conjugated with the bisphosphonate groups containing drug alendronate (ALN) have remarkably high affinity for bone mineral when compared to the polymer-drug conjugates devoid of the bisphosphonate groups. Both targeted and nontargeted polymer-drug conjugates show a sustained drug release in rat plasma with an overall release of 80-93% over 5 days. In vitro studies revealed high levels of cytotoxicity of the polymer-drug conjugates against HUVECs and U2-OS, and moderate cytotoxicity toward Saos-2. Importantly, the CA4 conjugated copolymers displayed excellent level of antiangiogenic activity as deduced from in vitro endothelial cell tube formation assay using HUVECs. Overall, a novel bone-targeting antiangiogenic polymer-drug conjugate that can be further elaborated to carry additional anticancer drugs is disclosed.

"Clickable" Nanogels via Thermally Driven Self-Assembly of Polymers: Facile Access to Targeted Imaging Platforms using Thiol-Maleimide Conjugation.

Multifunctionalizable nanogels are fabricated using thermally driven self-assembly and cross-linking of reactive thermoresponsive copolymers. Nanogels thus fabricated can be easily conjugated with various appropriately functionalized small molecules and/or ligands to tailor them for various applications in delivery and imaging. In this study, a poly(ethylene glycol)-methacrylate-based maleimide-bearing copolymer was cross-linked with a dithiol-based cross-linker to synthesize nanogels. Because of lower critical solution temperature (LCST) around 55 °C in aqueous media, these copolymers assemble into nanosized aggregates when heated to this temperature, and they are cross-linked using the thiol-maleimide conjugation. Nanogels thus fabricated contain both thiol and maleimide groups in the same cross-linked nanogels. Postgelation functionalization of the residual maleimide and thiol groups is demonstrated through conjugation of a thiol-bearing hydrophobic dye (BODIPY-SH) and N-(fluoresceinyl) maleimide, respectively. In addition, to demonstrate the utility of multifunctionality of these nanogels, a thiol-bearing cyclic-peptide-based targeting group, cRGDfC, and N-(fluoresceinyl)-maleimide-based fluorescent tag was conjugated to nanogels in aqueous media. Upon treatment with breast cancer cell lines, MDA-MB-231, it was deduced from cellular internalization studies using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry that the peptide carrying constructs were preferentially internalized. Overall, a facile synthesis of multifunctionalizable nanogels that can be tailored using effective conjugation chemistry under mild conditions can serve as promising candidates for various applications.

Dendrons and Multiarm Polymers with Thiol-Exchangeable Cores: A Reversible Conjugation Platform for Delivery.

Disulfide exchange reaction has emerged as a powerful tool for reversible conjugation of proteins, peptides and thiol containing molecules to polymeric supports. In particular, the pyridyl disulfide group provides an efficient handle for the site-specific conjugation of therapeutic peptides and proteins bearing cysteine moieties. In this study, novel biodegradable dendritic platforms containing a pyridyl disulfide unit at their focal point were designed. Presence of hydroxyl groups at the periphery of these dendrons allows their elaboration to multivalent initiators that yield poly(ethylene glycol) based multiarm star polymers via controlled radical polymerization. The pyridyl disulfide unit at the core of these star polymers undergoes efficient reaction with thiol functional group containing molecules such as a hydrophobic dye, namely, Bodipy-SH, glutathione, and KLAK sequence containing peptide. While conjugation of the hydrophobic fluorescent dye to the PEG-based multiarm polymer renders it water-soluble, it can be cleaved off the construct through thiol-disulfide exchange in the presence of an external thiol such as dithiothreitol. The multiarm polymer was conjugated with a thiol group containing apoptotic peptide to increase its solubility and cellular transport. In vitro cytotoxicity and apoptosis assays demonstrated that the resultant peptide-polymer conjugate had almost five times more apoptotic potential primarily through triggering apoptosis by disrupting mitochondrial membranes of human breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231) compared to naked peptide. The novel dendritic platform disclosed here offers an attractive template that can be modified to multiarm polymeric constructs bearing a "tag and release" characteristic.

Influence of Size and Shape on the Biodistribution of Nanoparticles Prepared by Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly.

Polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) is a facile one-pot synthetic technique for preparing polymeric nanoparticles with different sizes and shapes for application in a variety of fields including nanomedicine. However, the in vivo biodistribution of nanoparticles obtained by PISA still remains unclear. To address this knowledge gap, we report the synthesis, cytotoxicity, and biodistribution in an in vivo tumor-bearing mouse model of polystyrene micelles with various sizes and polystyrene filomicelles with different lengths prepared by PISA. First, a library of nanoparticles was prepared comprised of poly(glycidyl methacrylate)-b-poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate)-b-polystyrene polymers, and their size and morphology were tuned by varying the polystyrene block length without affecting the surface chemistry. The 3H) ethanolamine, and a biodistribution study was carried out in nude mice bearing HT1080 tumor xenografts 48 h after intravenous delivery. In this model, we found that small spherical polystyrene core nanoparticles with a PEG corona (diameter 21 nm) have the highest tumor accumulation when compared to the larger spherical nanoparticles (diameter 33 nm) or rodlike (diameter 37 nm, contour length 350-500 nm) or wormlike counterparts (diameter 45 nm, contour length 1-2 µm). This finding has provided critical information on the biodistribution of polystyrene core nanoparticles with a PEG corona of different sizes and shapes prepared by the PISA technique and will inform their use in medical applications.

Combretastatin A-4 Conjugated Antiangiogenic Micellar Drug Delivery Systems Using Dendron-Polymer Conjugates.

Employment of polymeric nanomaterials in cancer therapeutics is actively pursued since they often enable drug administration with increased efficacy along with reduced toxic side effects. In this study, drug conjugated micellar constructs are fabricated using triblock dendron-linear polymer conjugates where a hydrophilic linear polyethylene glycol (PEG) chain is flanked by well-defined hydrophobic biodegradable polyester dendrons bearing an antiangiogenic drug, combretastatin-A4 (CA4). Variation in dendron generation is utilized to obtain a library of micellar constructs with varying sizes and drug loadings. In particular, a family of drug appended dendron-polymer conjugates based on polyester dendrons of generations ranging from G1 to G3 and 10 kDa linear PEG were obtained using [3 + 2] Huisgen type "click" chemistry. The final constructs benefit from PEG's hydrophilicity and antibiofouling character, as well as biodegradable nature of the hydrophobic polyester dendrons. The hydrophobic-hydrophilic-hydrophobic character of these constructs leads to the formation of flower-like micelles in aqueous media. In addition to generation-dependent subnanomolar range critical micelle concentrations, the resulting micelles possess hydrodynamic diameters suitable for passive tumor targeting through enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect; thereby they are suitable candidates as controlled drug delivery agents. For all constructs, in vitro cytotoxicities were investigated and inhibitory effect of Comb-G3-PEG on tube formation was shown on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs).

Dendrimers and Dendrons as Versatile Building Blocks for the Fabrication of Functional Hydrogels.

Hydrogels have emerged as a versatile class of polymeric materials with a wide range of applications in biomedical sciences. The judicious choice of hydrogel precursors allows one to introduce the necessary attributes to these materials that dictate their performance towards intended applications. Traditionally, hydrogels were fabricated using either polymerization of monomers or through crosslinking of polymers. In recent years, dendrimers and dendrons have been employed as well-defined building blocks in these materials. The multivalent and multifunctional nature of dendritic constructs offers advantages in either formulation or the physical and chemical properties of the obtained hydrogels. This review highlights various approaches utilized for the fabrication of hydrogels using well-defined dendrimers, dendrons and their polymeric conjugates. Examples from recent literature are chosen to illustrate the wide variety of hydrogels that have been designed using dendrimer- and dendron-based building blocks for applications, such as sensing, drug delivery and tissue engineering.

Design and Synthesis of Water-Soluble Multifunctionalizable Thiol-Reactive Polymeric Supports for Cellular Targeting.

Design and synthesis of novel water-soluble polymers bearing reactive side chains are actively pursued due to their increasing demand in areas such as bioconjugation and drug delivery. This study reports the fabrication of poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate based thiol-reactive water-soluble polymeric supports that can serve as targeted drug delivery vehicles. Thiol-reactive maleimide units were incorporated into polymers as side chains by use of a furan-protected maleimide containing monomer. Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) was employed to obtain a family of well-defined copolymers with narrow molecular weight distributions. After the polymerization, the maleimide groups were activated to their reactive form, ready for conjugation with thiol-containing molecules. Efficient functionalization of the maleimide moieties was demonstrated by conjugation of a tripeptide glutathione under mild and reagent-free aqueous conditions. Additionally, hydrophobic thiol-containing dye (Bodipy-SH) and a cyclic peptide-based targeting group (cRGDfC) were sequentially appended onto the maleimide bearing polymers to demonstrate their efficient multifunctionalization. The conjugates were utilized for in vitro experiments over both cancerous and healthy breast cell lines. Obtained results demonstrate that the conjugates were nontoxic, and displayed efficient cellular uptake. The presence of the peptide based targeting group had a clear effect on increasing the uptake of the dye-conjugated polymers into cells when compared to the construct devoid of the peptide. Overall, the facile synthesis and highly efficient multifunctionalization of maleimide-containing thiol-reactive copolymers offer a novel and attractive class of polyethylene glycol-based water-soluble supports for drug delivery.