Association of Cardiovascular Mortality with Concurrent Coronary Artery Calcification and Physical Activity: A Cohort Study.

Background: Increased coronary artery calcification (CAC) has been reported in individuals with high levels of physical activity (PA). However, the association between increased CAC in a physically active population and cardiovascular mortality has not yet been well-established. This study aimed to investigate the association between PA levels and the presence or absence of CAC and cardiovascular mortality. Methods: A cohort study was conducted from 1 January 2011 to 30 December 2019. Mortality data were updated until 30 December 2020. The study population comprised 56,469 individuals who had completed the International Physical Activity Short Form Questionnaire and had undergone CAC score evaluation using a CT scan. We divided the participants into four groups: physically inactive individuals without CAC, physically inactive individuals with CAC, moderately active and health-enhancing physically active (HEPA) individuals without CAC, and moderately active and HEPA individuals with CAC. The primary outcome was cardiovascular mortality. The Cox proportional hazard model with confounding factor adjustment was conducted. Inverse probability of treatment weighting-based marginal-structural modelling was conducted. Results: The median follow-up duration was 6.60 years. The mean (SD) age of the study participants was 41.67 (±10.91) years, with 76.78% (n = 43,359) men. Compared with individuals without CAC, individuals with CAC demonstrated higher cardiovascular disease mortality regardless of PA level (Inactive and CAC > 0, HR 2.81, 95% CI: 1.76-19.19; moderately active and HEPA HR 3.27, 95% CI: 1.14-9.38). Conclusions: The presence of CAC might be associated with cardiovascular mortality regardless of PA level.

Waist circumference and risk of breast cancer in Korean women: A nationwide cohort study.

Although postmenopausal breast cancer (BC) risk has been linked to adiposity, associations between adiposity and premenopausal BC remain unclear. To address this question, we investigated the association of BC risk with measures of adiposity, including body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC), in a large cohort of Asian women. We used a nationwide cohort of adult Korean women selected from the National Health Insurance Corporation database merged with national health examination data from 2009 to 2015. A total of 11,227,948 women were tracked to retrospectively identify incident cases of BC. Our analysis used Cox proportional hazards models to calculate hazard ratios and assess the association of BC risk with BMI and/or WC in both pre- and postmenopausal women. BMI and WC were robustly associated with increased risk for postmenopausal BC (ptrend <0.001 for both BMI and WC) but not with premenopausal BC. Association between WC and premenopausal BC was only statistically significant when considering BMI (ptrend =0.044). In contrast, postmenopausal BC was negatively associated with WC when considering BMI (ptrend =0.011). In premenopausal women, WC may predict increased BC risk when considering BMI. However, in postmenopausal women, WC is not superior to BMI as an indicator of BC risk.

Waist circumference and risk of 23 site-specific cancers: a population-based cohort study of Korean adults.

BACKGROUND: Large waist circumference (WC) is a risk factor for several site-specific cancers, but a large-scale systematic investigation across all common cancers adjusted for potential confounders has not been conducted. This study aimed to evaluate the possible links between WC and common cancers. METHODS: We prospectively examined the association between WC and the risk of cancers in a 7-year cohort study of nearly 22.9 million Korean adults. Using the claims database merged with the national health check-up data, we fitted proportional hazard models to investigate associations between WC and 23 of the most common cancers, with adjustment for potential confounders, including body mass index (BMI). We also evaluated the modification of BMI on the relationships between WC and the incidence of cancer. RESULTS: A total of 769,871 cancer cases were identified. WC was positively associated with 18 of 23 cancers, and the effects varied substantially by site in each sex. The modification of BMI on the WC-cancer association also varied across the cancer site; in most cases it mitigated the association. For cancers of the oral cavity, larynx, oesophagus, lung, and premenopausal breast, the BMI adjustment reversed the association toward being positive (all Ptrend < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Central obesity, independent of general obesity, was associated with the risk of several cancers. The heterogeneity in the mediating effects of BMI suggests that different mechanisms are associated with different cancer sites. Based upon these findings, active strategies to monitor and prevent central obesity should be implemented.

Clinical availability of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease as an early predictor of type 2 diabetes mellitus in Korean men: 5-year prospective cohort study.

UNLABELLED: There have been several reports about the clinical association between type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). However, most of the studies were about the unilateral effects of type 2 DM on NAFLD, and studies on the reverse relation are rare. Thus, this study was designed to investigate the effect of NAFLD on type 2 DM. We conducted a prospective cohort study on 25,232 Korean men without type 2 DM for 5 years. We serially checked the various metabolic factors including fasting glucose and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), and monitored the development of type 2 DM. The incidence rate of type 2 DM was compared according to the degree of NAFLD (normal, mild, and moderate to severe), and a Cox proportional hazards model was used to measure the hazard ratios (HRs) of NAFLD on type 2 DM. The incidence rate of type 2 DM increased according to the degree of NAFLD (normal: 7.0%, mild: 9.8%, moderate to severe: 17.8%, P < 0.001). Even after adjusting for other multiple covariates, the HRs (95% confidence interval [CI]) for type 2 DM development was higher in the mild group (1.09; 0.81-1.48) and moderate to severe group (1.73; 1.00-3.01) compared to the normal group, respectively (P for trend <0.001). CONCLUSION: The development of type 2 DM is potentially more associated with more progressive NAFLD than a normal or milder state. In addition, NAFLD was an independent risk factor for the future development of type 2 DM. These results suggest the potential availability of NAFLD as an early predictor of type 2 DM.

2023 Diabetic Kidney Disease Fact Sheet in Korea.

BACKGRUOUND: To investigate the prevalence, incidence, comorbidities, and management status of diabetic kidney disease (DKD) and diabetes-related end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in South Korea. METHODS: We used the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data (2019 to 2021, n=2,665) for the evaluation of prevalence, comorbidities, control rate of glycemia and comorbidities in DKD, and the Korean Health Insurance Service-customized database (2008 to 2019, n=3,950,857) for the evaluation of trends in the incidence and prevalence rate of diabetes-related ESKD, renin-angiotensin system (RAS) blockers and sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors use for DKD, and the risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) and mortality according to DKD stages. DKD was defined as albuminuria or low estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 in patients with diabetes mellitus. RESULTS: The prevalence of DKD was 25.4% (albuminuria, 22.0%; low eGFR, 6.73%) in patients with diabetes mellitus aged ≥30 years. Patients with DKD had a higher rate of comorbidities, including hypertension, dyslipidemia, and central obesity; however, their control rates were lower than those without DKD. Prescription rate of SGLT2 inhibitors with reduced eGFR increased steadily, reaching 5.94% in 2019. Approximately 70% of DKD patients were treated with RAS blockers. The prevalence rate of diabetesrelated ESKD has been steadily increasing, with a higher rate in older adults. ASCVD and mortality were significantly associated with an in increase in DKD stage. CONCLUSION: DKD is prevalent among Korean patients with diabetes and is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, which requiring intensive management of diabetes and comorbidities. The prevalence of diabetes-related ESKD has been increasing, especially in the older adults, during past decade.

The association between daily calcium intake and sarcopenia in older, non-obese Korean adults: the fourth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES IV) 2009.

Recent data suggest that variations in calcium intake may influence body weight and composition; however, the relationship between daily calcium intake and muscle mass has not been well established. The objective of this study was to assess the relationship between daily calcium intake and sarcopenia. We analyzed data for older adults (over 60 years) from the fourth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) conducted in 2009. A total of 1339 Non-Obese (BMI between 18.5 and 25 kg/m²), older adults (592 men and 707 women) were enrolled. Dietary variables were assessed using a nutrition survey that used a 24-hour recall method. Daily calcium intake based on the consumption of each food item was calculated. Sarcopenia was defined as an appendicular skeletal muscle mass divided by body weight less than 2 SD below the sex-specific mean for young adults. We found that daily calcium intake was negatively correlated with total body fat percentage and positively correlated with appendicular skeletal mass (p<0.001). Participants with sarcopenia appear to have significantly lower daily calcium intakes than participants without sarcopenia (p<0.001). The unadjusted prevalence of sarcopenia according to daily calcium intake tertiles were 6.3%, 4.3%, and 2.7% in tertiles 1, 2, and 3, respectively. After adjustment for age, sex, BMI, total energy intake, and lifestyle factors, compared with those in the lowest tertile of daily calcium intake, participants in the highest tertile had an odds ratio for sarcopenia of 0.295 (95% confidence interval, 0.087-0.768; p for trend = 0.014). We found that daily calcium intake, corrected for total energy intake and serum 25(OH)D status, was significantly lower in subjects with sarcopenia than in those without. Our results suggest a strong inverse association between daily calcium intake and sarcopenia in non-obese, older Korean adults.

Association of Glycosylated Hemoglobin Level and Cancer-Related Mortality in Patients without Diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have reported that abnormal glucose metabolism is associated with poor cancer outcomes. Glycated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) is an important indicator of glucose metabolism. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between nondiabetic HbA1c levels and cancer-related mortality. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study of Koreans who attended an annual or biennial health checkup program. The study group was categorized based on the quintile of HbA1c level (Q1, 3.0-5.1%; Q2, 5.2-5.3%; Q3, 5.4%; Q4, 5.5-5.6%, Q5, 5.7-6.4%). Cancer-related mortality was determined using the mortality data from the Korea National Statistical Office. Participants with an established diagnosis of diabetes or cancer were excluded. Cancer-related mortality was assessed depending on each HbA1c level with adjustment for factors that could influence mortality. RESULTS: A total of 589,457 participants were included in this study. During a median follow-up duration of 6.99 years, 1712 cancer-related deaths were reported. The risk of cancer-related mortality was significantly higher in the Q5 group (hazard ratio (HR) 1.23, range 1.02-1.47 in model 1; HR 1.25, range 1.04-1.50 in model 2). HbA1c levels were linearly associated with cancer-related deaths (Ptrend = 0.021 in model 1; 0.013 in model 2). HbA1c level and colorectal, stomach, and lung cancer mortality exhibited a positive relationship, whereas liver cancer-related mortality showed an inverse relationship with HbA1c level (Ptrend = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Our study showed that abnormal glucose metabolism is significantly associated with cancer-related mortality, and its relationship varies with each type of cancer.

Elevated fasting insulin predicts the future incidence of metabolic syndrome: a 5-year follow-up study.

BACKGROUND: There is controversy about the specific pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome (MS) but several authors have argued that hyperinsulinemia is a key feature of the cluster. We aimed to assess whether the baseline insulin levels could predict the development of MS in a well characterised cohort of otherwise healthy adults who were followed over a five year period. METHODS: We identified 2, 350 Koreans subjects who did not have MS in 2003 and who were followed up in 2008. The subjects were divided into 4 groups according to the baseline quartiles of fasting insulin, and the predictors of the incidence of MS were analyzed using multivariate regression analysis. RESULTS: Over the follow up period, 8.5% of the cohort developed MS. However, 16.4% of the subjects in the highest quartile of the insulin levels developed MS. In a model that included gender, age, the smoking status, the exercise level, alcohol consumption and the systolic blood pressure, the subjects in the highest quartile of the insulin levels had more than a 5 times greater risk of developing MS compared that of the subjects in the lowest quartile. This predictive importance remained significant even after correcting for all the individual features of MS. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that high baseline fasting insulin levels are independent determinants for the future development of MS.

Dose-Dependent Effect of Smoking on Risk of Diabetes Remains after Smoking Cessation: A Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study in Korea.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to evaluate the dose-dependent effects of smoking on risk of diabetes among those quitting smoking. METHODS: We analyzed clinical data from a total of 5,198,792 individuals age 20 years or older who received health care check-up arranged by the national insurance program of Korea between 2009 and 2016 using the Korean National Health Insurance Service database. Cumulative smoking was estimated by pack-years. Smokers were classified into four categories according to the amount of smoking: light smokers (0.025 to 5 smoking pack-years), medium smokers (5 to 14 smoking pack-years), heavy smokers (14 to 26 smoking pack-years), and extreme smokers (more than 26 smoking pack-years). RESULTS: During the study period, 164,335 individuals (3.2% of the total population) developed diabetes. Compared to sustained smokers, the risk of diabetes was significantly reduced in both quitters (hazard ratio [HR], 0.858; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.838 to 0.878) and nonsmokers (HR, 0.616; 95% CI, 0.606 to 0.625) after adjustment for multiple risk factors. The risk of diabetes gradually increased with amount of smoking in both quitters and current smokers. The risk of diabetes in heavy (HR, 1.119; 95% CI, 1.057 to 1.185) and extreme smokers (HR, 1.348; 95% CI, 1.275 to 1.425) among quitters was much higher compared to light smokers among current smokers. CONCLUSION: Smoking cessation was effective in reducing the risk of diabetes regardless of weight change. However, there was a potential dose-dependent association between smoking amount and the development of diabetes. Diabetes risk still remained in heavy and extreme smokers even after smoking cessation.

Natural course of fatty liver in 36,195 South Korean adults.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common cause of liver disease, and yet the natural course remains unclear. Study population included 36,195 individuals who participated in a health-screening program and diagnosed with fatty liver by abdominal ultrasound. Participants were provided written information regarding fatty liver and advised to make lifestyle changes. Ultrasound was repeated after at least 6 months. After a mean follow up of 4.9 years (±3.4), 19.6% resolved their fatty liver. Individuals who resolved were more likely female (22.9% vs. 12.3%), thinner (body mass index [BMI], 25.2 ± 2.7 vs. 26 ± 2.7), and with lower HOMA-IR (1.4 vs. 1.7) (P .70.001). Decrease in BMI predicted resolution of fatty liver with 42% of those in the top quartile of BMI decline resolving compared with 5.7% in the lowest quartile (odds ratio [OR] (95% confidence interval [CI]) 15.65 (14.13-17.34), P < 0.001)). Baseline HOMA-IR also predicted resolution with those in the top quartile (most insulin resistant) being least likely to resolve (12%) vs. those in the lowest quartile (25%) (OR 0.36 [0.31-0.42], P < 0.001). Fatty liver disease is persistent. Individuals with higher degree of insulin resistance are also the most likely to have persistent steatosis at follow up.

Corrigendum: 2018 Korean Society for the Study of Obesity Guideline for the Management of Obesity in Korea.

[This corrects the article on p. 40 in vol. 28, PMID: 31089578.].

2018 Korean Society for the Study of Obesity Guideline for the Management of Obesity in Korea.

Obesity increases the risks of diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases, ultimately contributing to mortality. Korean Society for the Study of Obesity (KSSO) was established to improve the management of obesity through research and education; to that end, the Committee of Clinical Practice Guidelines of KSSO reviews systemic evidence using expert panels to develop clinical guidelines. The clinical practice guidelines for obesity were revised in 2018 using National Health Insurance Service Health checkup data from 2006 to 2015. Following these guidelines, we added a category, class III obesity, which includes individuals with body mass index (BMI) ≥35 kg/m2. Agreeing with the International Federation for the Surgery of Obesity and Metabolic Disorders, Asian Pacific Chapter consensus, we determined that bariatric surgery is indicated for Korean patients with BMI ≥35 kg/m2 and for Korean patients with BMI ≥30 kg/m2 who have comorbidities. The new guidelines focus on guiding clinicians and patients to manage obesity more effectively. Our recommendations and treatment algorithms can serve as a guide for the evaluation, prevention, and management of overweight and obesity.

Prevalence of Obesity and Incidence of Obesity-Related Comorbidities in Koreans Based on National Health Insurance Service Health Checkup Data 2006-2015.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of obesity and related comorbidities is increasing worldwide, including in Korea. The Korean Society for the Study of Obesity released the Obesity Fact Sheet 2017 to address this problem in the Korean population. METHODS: Data from the National Health Insurance Service Health Checkup database from 2006 to 2015 were standardized by age and sex using the 2010 Census. The definition of obesity was a body mass index (BMI) ≥25 kg/m2, and that of abdominal obesity was a waist circumference ≥90 cm in men and ≥85 cm in women. Multivariate adjusted Cox regression analysis was conducted, and hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals were calculated for comorbidities. RESULTS: From 2009 to 2015, the prevalence of obesity increased from 29.7% to 32.4%, and that of abdominal obesity increased from 18.4% to 20.8%. Obesity with abdominal obesity also increased from 15.1% to 17.7%. Between 2014 and 2015, the prevalence of obesity increased until 30-40 years of age, but decreased from 40-50 years of age in men. In women, it increased until the mid-70s, and decreased thereafter. Abdominal obesity increased from 20-30 years of age to 70-80 years of age, but decreased thereafter. The HRs for type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, dyslipidemia, myocardial infarction, and ischemic stroke were elevated in subjects with abdominal obesity, and their incidence increased as the BMI increased, but slowed down at BMI ≥35 kg/m2. CONCLUSION: Based on the Obesity Fact Sheet 2017, strategies for reducing the prevalence of obesity and abdominal obesity are essential.

Patient Understanding of Hypoglycemia in Tertiary Referral Centers.

BACKGROUND: Hypoglycemia is an important complication in the treatment of patients with diabetes. We surveyed the insight by patients with diabetes into hypoglycemia, their hypoglycemia avoidance behavior, and their level of worry regarding hypoglycemia. METHODS: A survey of patients with diabetes, who had visited seven tertiary referral centers in Daegu or Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea, between June 2014 and June 2015, was conducted. The survey contained questions about personal history, symptoms, educational experience, self-management, and attitudes about hypoglycemia. RESULTS: Of 758 participants, 471 (62.1%) had experienced hypoglycemia, and 250 (32.9%) had experienced hypoglycemia at least once in the month immediately preceding the study. Two hundred and forty-two (31.8%) of the participants had received hypoglycemia education at least once, but only 148 (19.4%) knew the exact definition of hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemic symptoms identified by the participants were dizziness (55.0%), sweating (53.8%), and tremor (40.8%). They mostly chose candy (62.1%), chocolate (37.7%), or juice (36.8%) as food for recovering hypoglycemia. Participants who had experienced hypoglycemia had longer duration of diabetes and a higher proportion of insulin usage. The mean scores for hypoglycemia avoidance behavior and worry about hypoglycemia were 21.2±10.71 and 23.38±13.19, respectively. These scores tended to be higher for participants with higher than 8% of glycosylated hemoglobin, insulin use, and experience of emergency room visits. CONCLUSION: Many patients had experienced hypoglycemia and worried about it. We recommend identifying patients that are anxious about hypoglycemia and educating them about what to do when they develop hypoglycemic symptoms, especially those who have a high risk of hypoglycemia.

The Effects of Urinary Albumin and Hypertension on All-Cause and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality in Korea.

BACKGROUND: Urinary albumin levels and hypertension (HTN) are independently associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality. The effect of albuminuria on mortality in the absence or presence of HTN is uncertain. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of albuminuria and HTN on all-cause and cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality. METHODS: Mortality outcomes for 32,653 Koreans enrolled in a health screening including measurements of the urinary albumin/creatinine ratio (UACR) at baseline and median follow-up of 5.13 years. Receiver operating characteristic curve analyses were performed in UACR and the cut-point was 5.42 mg/g. The participants for UACR at the cut-point of 5.42 µg/mg were categorized into UACR < 5.42 or UACR ≥ 5.42. HTN status was categorized as No HTN or HTN (defined as the absence or presence HTN). RESULTS: The median (interquartile) baseline UACRs were higher in those who died than in survivors. Subjects with a UACR ≥ 5.42 mg/g without or with HTN showed a similar increased risk for all-cause mortality and CVD mortality, even after adjusting for known CVD risk factors compared to those with no HTN/UACR < 5.42 (reference), (all-cause mortality; hazard ratio [HR] 1.48; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.02-2.15: HR 1.47; 95% CI 0.94-2.32, respectively), (CVD mortality; HR 5.75; 95% CI 1.54-21.47: HR 5.87; 95% CI 1.36-25.29). CONCLUSIONS: The presence of urinary albumin and HTN is a significant determinant of CVD and death. Urinary albumin might be more attributable to CVD and all-cause mortality than HTN.

Exendin-4 Inhibits Hepatic Lipogenesis by Increasing ß-Catenin Signaling.

The aim of this study is to investigate whether the beneficial effect of exendin-4 on hepatic steatosis is mediated by ß-catenin signaling. After the HepG2 human hepatoma cells were treated with PA for 24 hours, total triglycerides levels were increased in a dose-dependent manner, and the expression levels of perilipin family members were upregulated in cells treated with 400 µM PA. For our in vitro model of hepatic steatosis, HepG2 cells were treated with 400 µM palmitic acid (PA) in the presence or absence of 100 nM exendin-4 for 24 hours. PA increased the expression of lipogenic genes, such as sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1), fatty acid synthase (FAS), and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and triglyceride synthesis-involved genes, such as diacylglycerol acyltransferase 1 (DGAT1) and diacylglycerol acyltransferase 2 (DGAT2) in HepG2 cells, whereas exendin-4 treatment significantly prevented the upregulation of SREBP-1c, PPARγ, SCD1, FAS, ACC, DGAT1 and DGAT2. Moreover, exendin-4 treatment increased the expression of phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3ß) in the cytosolic fraction and the expression of ß-catenin and transcription factor 4 (TCF4) in the nuclear fraction. In addition, siRNA-mediated inhibition of ß-catenin upregulated the expression of lipogenic transcription factors. The protective effects of exendin-4 on intracellular triglyceride content and total triglyceride levels were not observed in cells treated with the ß-catenin inhibitor IWR-1. These data suggest that exendin-4 treatment improves hepatic steatosis by inhibiting lipogenesis via activation of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling.

Urinary albumin excretion within the normal range predicts the development of diabetes in Korean men.

AIMS: Urine albumin creatinine ratio (UACR) is a reliable index of urinary albumin excretion. Elevated UACR is known to be associated with increased risk for diabetes complications. However there is only limited information about the predictability of UACR within normal range for diabetes. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the association between UACR within the normal range and the development of diabetes. METHODS: The 1410 non-diabetic Korean men with UACR within the normal range were identified in 2005 and followed-up until 2010. All subjects were classified into four categories according to their baseline level of UACR, from the lowest to the highest quartile. Cox proportional hazards analysis was used to evaluate the independent hazard ratios (HRs) for diabetes according to the UACR levels of their quartile group. RESULTS: During follow-up, diabetes developed in 114 out of 1410 subjects (8.1%), and incidence of diabetes increased in proportion to the level of UACR (quartile 1; 4.5%, quartile 2; 7.9%, quartile 3: 8.8%, quartile 4: 11.1%, p = 0.002). The subjects with incident diabetes had a higher UACR than those without incident diabetes (6.6 ± 5.5 µg/mg v 5.3 ± 4.2 µg/mg, p=0.013). When quartile 1 was considered as the reference, HRs (95% confidential interval) for diabetes was higher in quartile 2 (1.04; 0.45-2.38), quartile 3 (1.09; 0.47-2.52) and quartile 4 (2.16; 1.02-4.57), even after adjusting for other potential confounders. CONCLUSIONS: Elevated UACR, even within the normal range, could predict the future development of diabetes.

Metabolic syndrome criteria as predictors of subclinical atherosclerosis based on the coronary calcium score.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: The aim was to determine which of three sets of metabolic syndrome (MetS) criteria (International Diabetes Federation [IDF], National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III [ATP III], and European Group for the Study of Insulin Resistance [EGIR]) best predicts the coronary artery calcification (CAC) score in a cross-sectional study. This has not been evaluated in previous studies. METHODS: A total of 24,060 subjects were screened for CAC by multi-detector computed tomography. The presence of CAC was defined as a CAC score > 0. The odds ratio for the presence of CAC was analyzed for three different sets of MetS criteria and according to number of MetS components. RESULTS: CAC was observed in 12.6% (3,037) of the subjects. Patients with MetS, as defined by the IDF, ATP III, and EGIR criteria, had a CAC rate of 23.0%, 25.1%, and 29.5%, respectively (p < 0.001). Comparisons of C statistics for multivariate regression models revealed no significant difference among the three sets of criteria. After adjustment for risk factors, the ATP III criteria produced a slightly higher odds ratio for CAC compared with the other criteria, but this difference was not significant. The risk factor-adjusted odds ratio for the presence of CAC increased from 1 to 1.679 as the number of MetS components defined by ATP III increased from 0 to ≥ 3 (p for trend < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The presence of MetS was associated with the presence of CAC. There was no significant difference among the three sets of MetS criteria in terms of the ability to predict CAC. An increase in the number of MetS components was associated with an increased odds of CAC.

Metabolic and cardiovascular implications of a metabolically healthy obesity phenotype.

Metabolically healthy obesity (MHO) is a new concept in which an individual may exhibit an obese phenotype in the absence of any metabolic abnormalities. There are a number of definitions of MHO that utilize a variety of components. The findings of clinical and basic studies indicate that subjects with MHO do not exhibit an increased mortality, an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, or an increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus, as compared to normal-weight controls. Although these findings imply that metabolic health is a more important factor than obesity, several studies have shown that subjects with MHO have a similar risk of metabolic or cardiovascular diseases as those with metabolically unhealthy obesity. Thus, there is still debate regarding not only the implications of the MHO phenotype but its very existence. Accordingly, future studies should focus on developing a unified definition of MHO and distinguishing subjects who will be at a high risk for metabolic and cardiovascular diseases.