Targeted production of proprotein convertase PC1 enhances mammary development and tumorigenesis in transgenic mice.

Elevated production of proprotein convertases (PCs), proteolytic enzymes that posttranslationally modify the biological activities of diverse groups of cellular proteins, is a common occurrence in human breast carcinomas. A transgenic mouse model was developed to gain insight into the significance of PC production in breast development and neoplasia. Mammary epithelium-specific and early expression of PC1 was targeted by the use of the mouse mammary tumor virus promoter/enhancer. Whole-mount examinations revealed that the mammary glands of 83-day-old virgin PC1 transgenic mice exhibited an accelerated lobuloalveolar development compared with that of age-matched wild-type mice (p < 0.001). This phenotypic change was accompanied by extensive alterations in gene expression assessed by gene expression microarray analyses. Pathway analysis of PC1-induced alterations in gene expression has revealed possible mechanism of action of PC1 in the mammary gland. PC1 expression alone, however, did not promote spontaneous mammary tumorigenesis in the transgenic mice. PC1 transgene expression resulted in a significantly higher incidence (p = 0.008) and accelerated growth (p = 0.023) of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced mammary adenocarcinomas. The present study therefore shows that PC1 expression can promote normal and neoplastic mammary development and growth and suggests that proprotein convertases may be important etiological factors in human breast neoplasia.

Cells deficient in oxidative DNA damage repair genes Myh and Ogg1 are sensitive to oxidants with increased G2/M arrest and multinucleation.

Oxidative stress generated from endogenous and exogenous sources causes oxidative DNA damage. The most frequent mutagenic base lesion 7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine and the resulting mismatched adenine are removed by OGG1 and MYH in mammals. Deficiencies in human MYH or mouse MYH and OGG1 result in tumor predisposition but the underlying molecular mechanism is not fully understood. To facilitate the study of the roles of MYH and OGG1 in the protection against oxidative stress, we generated mouse embryonic fibroblast cell lines deficient in these genes. Myh and Ogg1 double knockout cells were more sensitive than wild type to oxidants (hydrogen peroxide and t-butyl hydroperoxide), but not to cis-platinum or gamma-irradiations. The low dosage oxidative stress resulted in more reduction of S phase and increase of G(2)/M phase in Myh(-/-)Ogg1(-/-) cells than in wild-type cells, but a similar level of cell death in both cells. The oxidants also induced more multinucleated cells in Myh(-/-)Ogg1(-/-) cells than in wild-type, accompanied by centrosome amplification and multipolar spindle formation. Thus, under oxidative stress, Myh and Ogg1 are likely required for normal cell-cycle progression and nuclear division, suggesting multiple roles of Myh and Ogg1 in the maintenance of genome stability and tumor prevention.

Differential expression of claudin 1, 3, and 4 during normal mammary gland development in the mouse.

The claudins are a family of tight junction proteins that display varied tissue distribution and preferential specificity. We recently identified by microarray analysis, members of this family, particularly claudin 1 (cldn1), as highly upregulated genes in the mouse mammary gland during early involution. Gene expression was confirmed by immunohistochemistry and real-time PCR. We then examined gene and protein expression throughout normal mammary gland development. The cldn3 gene showed a steady increase in expression from pregnancy to involution, while cldn1 and cldn4 gene expression increased during pregnancy, but decreased sharply by D10 of lactation, and once again was significantly increased by D1 of involution (P < 0.001 for both genes). The different patterns of gene expression observed between cldn3, and cldn1, and 4 suggest that different family members may be functionally important at different times during mouse mammary gland development. All three genes exhibited a high level of expression at day 1 (D1) of involution, followed by a dramatic decrease in gene expression to day 10 of involution. Immunostaining with the cldn3 antibody showed intense staining of epithelial cells; however, a lesser degree of staining was evident with the cldn1 antibody. In addition to the lateral staining of epithelial cells, basal staining was evident at D1 and D2 of involution and cytoplasmic staining was evident during lactation. Since claudins are known to play a role as tight junction proteins, lateral and basal staining may suggest a role in other functions such as vesicle trafficking or remodeling of tight junctions at different stages of mammary gland development. Cldn1 and 3 antibodies also stained epithelial cells in mouse mammary tumors. In summary, cldn1, 3, and 4 are differentially expressed in the mammary gland during pregnancy, lactation, and involution, suggesting different roles for these proteins at different stages of mammary gland function. In addition, cldn1 and cldn3 are detected in mammary tumors and the wide distribution of cldn3 in particular, suggest specific roles for these proteins in mammary tumorigenesis.

Prolactin-Inducible Protein: From Breast Cancer Biomarker to Immune Modulator-Novel Insights from Knockout Mice.

The propensity for breast cancers to elicit immune responses in patients is well established. The accumulation of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes within the primary breast tumor has been linked to better prognosis and better response to therapy. The prolactin-inducible protein (PIP) is a 15 kD protein that is expressed under physiological conditions of the breast and is regarded as a marker of mammary differentiation. While highly expressed under pathological conditions of the mammary gland, including breast cancers, PIP is expressed in very few other cancers. Although the function of PIP is not well elucidated, numerous studies suggest that its primary role may be related to host defense and immune modulation. However, evidence to show a direct link between PIP and the immune response has been lacking. In this review, we discuss our recent work with Pip-deficient mice, linking PIP not only to a role in innate immunity but for the first time, providing evidence for a role in cell-mediated immunity. These functional studies in Pip null mice lend new insight into the role of PIP in immunity and suggest that PIP may play a similar immune-regulatory role in breast cancer.

Apoptosis, autophagy, accelerated senescence and reactive oxygen in the response of human breast tumor cells to adriamycin.

Although the primary response to Adriamycin (doxorubicin) in p53 mutant MDA-MB231 and p53 null MCF-7/E6 breast tumor cells is apoptotic cell death, the residual surviving population appears to be in a state of senescence, based on cell morphology, beta galactosidase staining, induction of p21(waf1/cip1) and down regulation of cdc2/cdk1. Suppression of apoptosis in MDA-MB231 and MCF-7/E6 cells treated with Adriamycin using the broad spectrum caspase inhibitor, zvad-Fmk, results in substantial induction of autophagy. Overall sensitivity to Adriamycin, measured by clonogenic survival, is not altered in the cells undergoing autophagy, consistent with autophagy contributing to cell death in response to Adriamycin. The free radical scavengers, glutathione and N-acetyl cysteine attenuate the accelerated senescence response to Adriamycin in MCF-7 cells as well as in MDA-MB231 and MCF-7/E6 cells, but protect primarily the MCF-7 cells, indicating that reactive oxygen is unlikely to be directly responsible for Adriamycin toxicity in breast tumor cells. Expression of caspase 3 or induced expression of c-myc in MCF-7 cells fails to abrogate accelerated senescence induced by Adriamycin. Taken together, these studies suggest that accelerated senescence induced by Adriamycin is similar in cells with wild type p53 and in cells lacking functional p53 with regard to the upregulation of p21(waf1/cip1), down regulation of cdc2 and the involvement of reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, accelerated senescence, autophagy and apoptosis all appear to be effective in suppressing self-renewal capacity in breast tumor cells exposed to Adriamycin.

Estrogen receptor-beta regulates psoriasin (S100A7) in human breast cancer.

We have previously observed a paradoxical relationship of the psoriasin/S100A7 gene with estrogen response in-vitro in ERalpha positive cells but its association with ERalpha negative status in-vivo raising the possibility that S100A7 might be regulated by ERbeta in breast cancer. Using doxycycline-inducible ERbeta and ERalpha expressing MCF-7 cells the hypothesis that psoriasin/S100A7 is ERbeta regulated was investigated To explore the relationship between psoriasin/S100A7 and ERbeta expression in-vivo, we also assessed a cohort of 233 ERalpha negative breast tumors using tissue microarrays and immunohistochemistry. Psoriasin/S100A7 was increased by 17beta-estradiol (E2) following ERbeta induction, in several clones of ERbeta over-expressing but not in the original MCF-7 cells, nor clones over-expressing ERalpha. The effect of E2 on psoriasin/S100A7 was inhibited by 4-hydroxytamoxifen and ICI 182780 but not with a selective ERalpha antagonist. An ERbeta selective-agonist but not an ERalpha selective-agonist, induced psoriasin/S100A7. This induction still occurred after stable down-regulation of ERalpha using siRNA in ERbeta inducible cells. E2 increased psoriasin/S100A7 mRNA but cycloheximide treatment inhibited this effect. A relationship between ERbeta and psoriasin/S100A7 was observed in the p53 immunohistochemically negative subset of invasive breast tumors in-vivo (r = 0.225, p = 0.046, n = 79). In conclusion we demonstrate that E2 induction of psoriasin/S100A7 can be specifically regulated through ERbeta in-vitro and associated with ERbeta in-vivo. These data support the hypothesis that psoriasin/S100A7 is specifically regulated by ERbeta activity and could be useful to guide future therapies targeting ERbeta in certain phenotypic subsets of breast cancers in-vivo.

C-myc gene expression alone is sufficient to confer resistance to antiestrogen in human breast cancer cells.

C-myc is implicated in the initiation, progression and estrogen response of breast cancer. To further investigate the role of c-myc in breast cancer, we have developed clonal MCF-7 human breast cancer cell lines harboring a stably-transfected human c-myc gene, whose expression was stringently controlled by the bacterial reverse tetracycline transcription activator protein. The expression of the endogenous genomic c-myc gene in MCF-7 cells was abolished by the potent pure estrogen antagonist, ICI 182,780. Functional c-Myc protein was identified by both Western immunoblotting and by its ability to transactivate a chimeric plasmid consisting of E-box sequences upstream of the luciferase reporter gene. One MCF-7 clone, 35im, was chosen for further characterization. C-myc induction by doxycycline was rapid and dose dependent; c-myc mRNA appeared as early as 30 min after doxycycline addition and stimulation of c-myc expression required as little as 50 ng/ml doxycycline, with c-myc mRNA levels reaching a plateau at 2.5 microg/ml doxycycline. ICI 182,780 or doxycycline (a tetracycline analog) treatment did not alter the mRNA levels of Max, the c-myc binding partner. As in wildtype MCF-7 cells, the growth of clone 35im was inhibited by 1 microM or less of ICI 182,780 and stimulated by 10 nM to 1 microM 17beta-estradiol. When maintained in a complete medium containing 5% normal fetal bovine serum (FBS) and ICI 182,780, doxycycline induced cell growth by 400% in an 8-day assay. A similar level of growth was achieved with doxycycline treatment in cells that were arrested by the use of charcoal-stripped FBS. Doxycycline had no effect on the growth of a control MCF-7 clone (18c). Apoptosis, assessed by caspase-dependent cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, was unchanged in clone 35im cells after treatments with doxycycline or ICI 182,780. The present study demonstrates that c-myc alone is sufficient to confer antiestrogen resistance in human breast cancer. Our novel c-myc-inducible MCF-7 cell model offers a unique opportunity to study the diverse actions of the c-myc proto-oncogene in human breast cancer.