Deacetylase Sirtuin 1 mitigates type I IFN- and type II IFN-induced signaling and antiviral immunity.

Type I and type II IFNs are important immune modulators in both innate and adaptive immunity. They transmit signaling by activating JAK-STAT pathways. Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), a class III NAD+-dependent deacetylase, has multiple functions in a variety of physiological processes. Here, we characterized the novel functions of SIRT1 in the regulation of type I and type II IFN-induced signaling. Overexpression of SIRT1 inhibited type I and type II IFN-induced interferon-stimulated response element activation. In contrast, knockout of SIRT1 promoted type I and type II IFN-induced expression of ISGs and inhibited viral replication. Treatment with SIRT1 inhibitor EX527 had similar positive effects. SIRT1 physically associated with STAT1 or STAT3, and this interaction was enhanced by IFN stimulation or viral infection. By deacetylating STAT1 at K673 and STAT3 at K679/K685/K707/K709, SIRT1 downregulated the phosphorylation of STAT1 (Y701) and STAT3 (Y705). Sirt1+/- primary peritoneal macrophages and Sirt1+/- mice exhibited enhanced IFN-induced signaling and antiviral activity. Thus, SIRT1 is a novel negative regulator of type I and type II IFN-induced signaling through its deacetylase activity.IMPORTANCESIRT1 has been reported in the precise regulation of antiviral (RNA and DNA) immunity. However, its functions in type I and type II IFN-induced signaling are still unclear. In this study, we deciphered the important functions of SIRT1 in both type I and type II IFN-induced JAK-STAT signaling and explored the potential acting mechanisms. It is helpful for understanding the regulatory roles of SIRT1 at different levels of IFN signaling. It also consolidates the notion that SIRT1 is an important target for intervention in viral infection, inflammatory diseases, or even interferon-related therapies.

Prostaglandin E2-Induced AKT Activation Regulates the Life Span of Short-Lived Plasma Cells by Attenuating IRE1α Hyperactivation.

The mechanism regulating the life span of short-lived plasma cells (SLPCs) remains poorly understood. Here we demonstrated that the EP4-mediated activation of AKT by PGE2 was required for the proper control of inositol-requiring transmembrane kinase endoribonuclease-1α (IRE1α) hyperactivation and hence the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis in IgM-producing SLPCs. Disruption of the PGE2-EP4-AKT signaling pathway resulted in IRE1α-induced activation of JNK, leading to accelerated death of SLPCs. Consequently, Ptger4-deficient mice (C57BL/6) exhibited a markedly impaired IgM response to T-independent Ags and increased susceptibility to Streptococcus pneumoniae infection. This study reveals a highly selective impact of the PGE2-EP4 signal on the humoral immunity and provides a link between ER stress response and the life span of SLPCs.

Frequency-modulated continuous-wave laser ranging using low-duty-cycle signals for the applications of real-time super-resolved ranging.

A frequency-modulated continuous-wave laser ranging method using low-duty-cycle linear-frequency-modulated (LFM) signals is proposed. A spectrum consisting of a dense Kronecker comb is obtained so that the frequency of the beat signal can be measured with finer resolution. Since the dense comb is provided, super-resolved laser ranging can be achieved using a single-parametric frequency estimation method. Therefore, the run times of the estimation are reduced which promises real-time applications. A proof-of-concept experiment is carried out, in which an LFM signal with a bandwidth of 5 GHz and a duration of 1 µs is used. The duty-cycle of the LFM signal is 10%. The time delay of a scanning variable optical delay line is obtained in real time from the frequency of the highest comb tooth, of which the measurement resolution is 20 ps. Moreover, a single-parametric nonlinear least squares method is used to fit the envelope so that the time delay can be estimated with super-resolution. The standard deviation of the estimation displacements is 2.3 ps, which is 87 times finer than the bandwidth-limited resolution (200 ps). Therefore, the variation of the time delay can be precisely monitored. The proposed method may be used to achieve real-time high-resolution laser ranging with low-speed electronic devices.

Inhibition of E protein activity facilitates the quiescence exit of naïve CD4+ T cells through modulating PI3K-AKT signaling and TCR microcluster formation.

Many aspects remain elusive of the mechanisms governing T cell quiescence. Here we show that E protein activity helps to establish a quiescent program in naïve T cells. Decreased E protein activity, as the consequence of enforced expression of an Id1 transgene, led to the accumulation of CD4+CD44hi T cells. The naïve CD4+ T cells from this transgenic strain mounted a vigorous proliferative response upon TCR stimulation, as a result of direct inhibition of E protein activity. Transcriptome analyses demonstrated that Id1-tg naïve CD4+ T cells exhibited a transcriptional profile characteristic of activated CD4+ T cells, with particular enrichment in the gene set related to PI3K-AKT signaling. Western blot analysis confirmed low but constitutive activation of this pathway. Moreover, the Id1-tg CD4+ T cells displayed enhanced formation of TCR microcluster. Taken together, these data support that downregulation of E protein activity facilitates the exit of naïve T cells from quiescence.

Correlation of the levels of DNA-binding inhibitor Id3 and regulatory T cells with SLE disease severity.

E proteins, a subset of basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) proteins, are transcription activators and their functions are inhibited by DNA-binding inhibitor (Id) 1-4. Studies have shown that Treg levels are decreased in Id3 knockout mice. Mice over-expressing Id1 in CD4 T cells possessed a greater number of regulatory T cells (Treg) and exhibited attenuated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The significance of Id proteins in human systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) remains unclear. In this study, we systematically analyzed Id transcription in naïve, memory CD4 cells and regulatory T cells in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in patients with active or inactive SLE. In parallel, Treg subsets in PBMCs were analyzed using different strategies. Id expression levels were correlated with Treg numbers as well as clinical indicators. We found that Id genes expressed in human peripheral CD4 cells were mainly Id2 and Id3. Id3 levels were significantly elevated in CD4+CD25hi T cells of patients with active SLE. Likewise, Id3 levels were positively correlated with increased CD4+FoxP3+ and CD4+Helios+FoxP3+ Treg cells in these patients. Id3 levels were found to be positively correlated with erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), lupus anticoagulant (LAC), ribosomal antibody and SLE Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI) in patients with active SLE. Mice overexpressing Id1 in CD4+ T cells possessed significantly higher Treg levels in spleen and lower autoantibody concentrations in serum. Our results suggest that during the pathogenesis of SLE, up-regulation of Id3 can promote Treg differentiation to play an inhibitory effect on autoimmune responses.

Newly Generated CD4+ T Cells Acquire Metabolic Quiescence after Thymic Egress.

Mature naive T cells circulate through the secondary lymphoid organs in an actively enforced quiescent state. Impaired cell survival and cell functions could be found when T cells have defects in quiescence. One of the key features of T cell quiescence is low basal metabolic activity. It remains unclear at which developmental stage T cells acquire this metabolic quiescence. We compared mitochondria among CD4 single-positive (SP) T cells in the thymus, CD4+ recent thymic emigrants (RTEs), and mature naive T cells in the periphery. The results demonstrate that RTEs and naive T cells had reduced mitochondrial content and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species when compared with SP thymocytes. This downregulation of mitochondria requires T cell egress from the thymus and occurs early after young T cells enter the circulation. Autophagic clearance of mitochondria, but not mitochondria biogenesis or fission/fusion, contributes to mitochondrial downregulation in RTEs. The enhanced apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1/MAPKs and reduced mechanistic target of rapamycin activities in RTEs relative to SP thymocytes may be involved in this mitochondrial reduction. These results indicate that the gain of metabolic quiescence is one of the important maturation processes during SP-RTE transition. Together with functional maturation, it promotes the survival and full responsiveness to activating stimuli in young T cells.

USP7-TRIM27 axis negatively modulates antiviral type I IFN signaling.

Ubiquitination and deubiquitination are important post-translational regulatory mechanisms responsible for fine tuning the antiviral signaling. In this study, we identified a deubiquitinase, the ubiquitin-specific peptidase 7/herpes virus associated ubiquitin-specific protease (USP7/HAUSP) as an important negative modulator of virus-induced signaling. Overexpression of USP7 suppressed Sendai virus and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid and poly(deoxyadenylic-deoxythymidylic)-induced ISRE and IFN-ß activation, and enhanced virus replication. Knockdown or knockout of endogenous USP7 expression had the opposite effect. Coimmunoprecipitation assays showed that USP7 physically interacted with tripartite motif (TRIM)27. This interaction was enhanced after SeV infection. In addition, TNF receptor-associated factor family member-associated NF-kappa-B-binding kinase (TBK)-1 was pulled down in the TRIM27-USP7 complex. Overexpression of USP7 promoted the ubiquitination and degradation of TBK1 through promoting the stability of TRIM27. Knockout of endogenous USP7 led to enhanced TRIM27 degradation and reduced TBK1 ubiquitination and degradation, resulting in enhanced type I IFN signaling. Our findings suggest that USP7 acts as a negative regulator in antiviral signaling by stabilizing TRIM27 and promoting the degradation of TBK1.-Cai, J., Chen, H.-Y., Peng, S.-J., Meng, J.-L., Wang, Y., Zhou, Y., Qian, X.-P., Sun, X.-Y., Pang, X.-W., Zhang, Y., Zhang, J. USP7-TRIM27 axis negatively modulates antiviral type I IFN signaling.

Recirculating Th2 cells induce severe thymic dysfunction via IL-4/STAT6 signaling pathway.

Thymic involution happened early in life, but a certain ratio of activated CD4+ T cells will persistently recirculate into the thymus from the periphery and it have been suggested to be able to inhibit the development of embryonic thymocytes. Our present study was aimed to elucidate the specific mechanism how activated CD4+ T cells could influence upon developing thymocytes by using fetal thymic organ culture (FTOC) and kidney capsule transplantation. Our results demonstrated that Th2 cells were found to play a fundamental role in the inhibition of embryonic thymocyte development since a very low concentration of Th2 cells could obviously reduce the total number of thymocytes. And this effect was not tenable in other Th cell type. Notably, IL-4, the major cytokine secreted by Th2 cells, was suggested the key factor playing the inhibition role. In addition to reduced cell population, the proportion of double positive (DP) T cells was also heavily decreased. Furthermore, we demonstrated that it was the downstream effector signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6) of IL-4 partially manipulate this inhibition. Together, these findings reveal a novel influence of Th2 cells re-entering the thymus on thymic involution.

Simulated microgravity disrupts intestinal homeostasis and increases colitis susceptibility.

The immune systems can be altered by spaceflight in many aspects, but microgravity-related mucosal immune changes and its clinical significance have not been well studied. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether simulated microgravity influences the intestinal homeostasis and increases the susceptibility to colon inflammation. The hindlimb unloading (HU) mouse model was used to simulate the microgravity condition. Three percent dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) was given to mice to induce colitis. Compared to ground control (Ctrl) mice, the HU ones revealed an impaired intestinal homeostasis and increased susceptibility to DSS-induced colitis. This includes an early-onset, 4-fold expansion of segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB), more than 2-fold decrease in regulatory T (Treg) cell numbers and IL-10 production, ∼2-fold increase in colonic IL-1ß expression, 2-fold increase in circulating neutrophils, and colonic neutrophil infiltration. The application of antibiotics ameliorated the Treg and IL-10 reductions but did not significantly dampen neutrophilia and elevated expression of colonic IL-1ß. These results indicate that the intestinal microflora and innate immune system both respond to simulated microgravity and together, contribute to the proinflammatory shift in the gut microenvironment. The data also emphasize the necessity for evaluating the susceptibility to inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) in distant space travels.

Trx1/TrxR1 system regulates post-selected DP thymocytes survival by modulating ASK1-JNK/p38 MAPK activities.

A key process in the development of T lymphocyte in the thymus is T-cell receptor (TCR) selection. It is controlled by complex signaling pathways that contain redox-sensitive molecules. However, the redox status early after TCR selection and how redox regulators promote the survival of post-selected DP thymocytes has not been directly addressed. The present study demonstrated that the transition from pre- to post-selected double-positive (DP) stages was accompanied with an increase of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and a transient surge in the expression of a variety of redox regulators. Among them, the thioredoxin (Trx)1/thioredoxin reductase (TrxR)1 system was found to be critically involved in the regulation of cell survival of DP thymocytes, especially that of post-selected CD69(+) subset, as its inhibition caused a specific reduction of these cells both in vitro and in vivo, most likely owing to increased apoptosis. Suppression of the glutathione-dependent redox system, on the other hand, showed no obvious impact. Biochemically, treatment of DP thymcoytes with TrxR1 inhibitor alone or in conjunction with anti-CD3 resulted in enhanced phosphorylation of redox-sensitive ASK-1, JNK and p38 MAPK, and upregulated expression of Bim. Taken together, the data presented here suggest that the timely upregulation of Trx1/TrxR1 and the active control of intracellular redox status is critical for the survival of thymocytes during and short after positive selection.

Retention and tolerance of autoreactive CD4(+) recent thymic emigrants in the liver.

Mechanisms of peripheral tolerance play a critical role in preventing T cells that escape from negative selection in the thymus from initiating autoimmune reactions. To investigate the site of peripheral tolerance induction, we examined migration and activation of recent thymic emigrants (RTEs) in liver, spleen, lymph node and peripheral blood. We show that a fraction of RTE precursors were retained in the liver independent of the secondary lymphoid organs. Compared to RTEs from the lymph nodes, RTEs from the liver proliferated more and many exhibited an activated phenotype with the capability of producing IL-10 upon activation. Liver RTEs also responded poorly to interleukin (IL)-7 and were more prone to apoptosis. Following transfer into RAG(-/-) recipients, liver RTEs induced more severe inflammation and T cell infiltration in the lung and colon. The extrathymic expression of MHC and Aire is required for the acquisition of tolerogenic phenotype of newly generated thymic emigrants in the liver. These results suggest that the liver is the first checkpoint in the periphery to filter, retain, and enforce tolerance to autoreactive CD4(+) thymic emigrants that escape from negative selection.

Suspension of thymic emigration promotes the maintenance of antigen-specific memory T cells and the recall responses.

Thymic involution is evolutionarily conserved and occurs early in life. However, the physiological significance remains elusive of this seemingly detrimental process. The present study investigated the potential impact of altered thymic output on T cell memory using ovalbumin (OVA) expressed by Listeria monocytogenes as a model antigen. Suspension of thymic emigration by thymectomy was shown to lead to a marked increase in the frequency and total number of OVA-specific memory T cells. In contrast, oversupply of thymic emigrants through thymic grafting caused a significant decrease of such cells. When rechallenged with L. monocytogenes expressing OVA, the thymectomized mice mounted a more potent recall response as evidenced by the enlarged population of OVA-specific tetramer⁺ cells and the accelerated clearance of the bacteria. Notably, the memory-enhancing effect of thymectomy was abrogated following weekly adoptive transfer of naive T cells. Together, data from the present study indicate that reduced thymic output favors the maintenance of the memory T cell pool.

Id1 expression promotes peripheral CD4+ T cell proliferation and survival upon TCR activation without co-stimulation.

Although the role of E proteins in the thymocyte development is well documented, much less is known about their function in peripheral T cells. Here we demonstrated that CD4 promoter-driven transgenic expression of Id1, a naturally occurring dominant-negative inhibitor of E proteins, can substitute for the co-stimulatory signal delivered by CD28 to facilitate the proliferation and survival of naïve CD4+ cells upon anti-CD3 stimulation. We next discovered that IL-2 production and NF-κB activity after anti-CD3 stimulation were significantly elevated in Id1-expressing cells, which may be, at least in part, responsible for the augmentation of their proliferation and survival. Taken together, results from this study suggest an important role of E and Id proteins in peripheral T cell activation. The ability of Id proteins to by-pass co-stimulatory signals to enable T cell activation has significant implications in regulating T cell immunity.

Redox balance of mouse medullary CD4 single-positive thymocytes.

After positive selection, the newly differentiated single-positive (SP) thymocytes undergo negative selection to eliminate autoreactive T cells, functional maturation to acquire immunocompetence and egress capability. To investigate whether the intracellular reduction/oxidation (redox) balance has an important role on SP maturation, the levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the expression of proteins that regulate ROS were compared among the four subsets of mouse TCRαß(+)CD4(+)CD8(-) thymocytes (SP1-SP4) that represent sequential stages of SP differentiation program. A gradual increase of ROS and a gradual decrease of thioredoxin were revealed along the SP maturation process. The high ROS level at the mature SP stage did not result from a specific enrichment at this stage of natural regulatory T cells and SP thymocytes undergoing negative selection (Helios positive). An increase of ROS in the most mature SP4 cells resulted in enhanced cytokine production upon stimulation, whereas an early increase of ROS in the immature SP1 thymocytes resulted in enhanced apoptosis. Aire(-/-) mice that have defects in negative selection and a developmental blockage at the SP3-SP4 transition showed significantly less ROS in SP3 thymocytes. Thymic epithelial cells that have been shown to promote SP maturation in vitro also increased the ROS level of SP thymocytes. These results suggest that ROS may be involved in promoting the functional maturation of CD4(+) SPs and thymic medullary microenvironment contributes to the pro-oxidant shift of SP thymocytes.

The expression of netrin-1 in the thymus and its effects on thymocyte adhesion and migration.

Netrin-1, a known axon guidance molecule, being a secreted laminin-related molecule, has been suggested to be involved in multiple physiological and pathological conditions, such as organogenesis, angiogenesis, tumorigenesis, and inflammation-mediated tissue injury. However, its function in thymocyte development is still unknown. Here, we demonstrate that Netrin-1 is expressed in mouse thymus tissue and is primarily expressed in thymic stromal cells, and the expression of Netrin-1 in thymocytes can be induced by anti-CD3 antibody or IL-7 treatment. Importantly, Netrin-1 mediates the adhesion of thymocytes, and this effect is comparable to or greater than that of fibronectin. Furthermore, Netrin-1 specifically promotes the chemotaxis of CXCL12. These suggest that Netrin-1 may play an important role in thymocyte development.

CBX4 promotes antitumor immunity by suppressing Pdcd1 expression in T cells.

E3 SUMO-protein ligase CBX4 (CBX4), a key component of polycomb-repressive complexes 1 (PRC1), has been reported to regulate a variety of genes implicated in tumor growth, metastasis, and angiogenesis. However, its role in T-cell-mediated antitumor immunity remains elusive. To shed light on this issue, we generated mice with T-cell-specific deletion of Cbx4. Tumor growth was increased in the knockout mice. Additionally, their tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes exhibited impaired tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) production, with an elevated programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) level. In fact, dysregulated Pdcd1 expression was observed in all major subsets of peripheral T cells from the knockout mice, which was accompanied by a functional defect in response to T-cell receptor (TCR) stimulation. In support of a direct link between CBX4 and PD-1, Cbx4 overexpression resulted in the downregulation of Pdcd1 expression. Epigenetic analyses indicated that Cbx4 deficiency leads to diminished accumulation of inhibitory histone modifications at conserved region (CR)-C and CR-B sites of the Pdcd1 promoter, namely mono-ubiquitinated histone H2A at lysine 119 (H2AK119ub1) and trimethylated histone H3 at lysine 27 (H3K27me3). Moreover, inhibition of either the E3 ligase activity of polycomb-repressive complexes 1 (PRC1) or the methyltransferase activity of polycomb-repressive complexes 2 (PRC2) restores Pdcd1 expression in Cbx4-transfected cells. Cumulatively, this study reveals a novel function of CBX4 in the regulation of T-cell function and expands our understanding of the epigenetic control of Pdcd1 expression.

Deubiquitinase USP47 attenuates virus-induced type I interferon signaling.

The innate immune responses are tightly regulated to ensure effective clearance of invading pathogens and avoid excessive inflammation. Ubiquitination and deubiquitination are important post-translational modifications in antiviral immune responses. Here, we discovered deubiquitinase USP47 as a novel negative immune system regulator. Overexpression of USP47 repressed Sendai virus, poly(I:C) and poly(dA:dT)-induced ISRE and IFN-ß activation, along with reduced IFNB1 transcription and enhanced viral replication. Knockdown of USP47 expression had the opposite effects. Dual-luciferase and phosphorylation assays showed that USP47 targeted downstream of MAVS and upstream of TBK1. Additional co-immunoprecipitation assays suggested that USP47 interacted with TRAF3 and TRAF6. Importantly, USP47 removed K63-linked polyubiquitin chains from TRAF3 and TRAF6. Hence, we describe a novel modulator of the antiviral innate immune response, USP47, which removes K63-linked polyubiquitins from TRAF3 and TRAF6, leading to reduced type I IFN signaling.

Up-regulated DNA-binding inhibitor Id3 promotes differentiation of regulatory T cell to influence antiviral immunity in chronic hepatitis B virus infection.

AIM: Elevated Treg is relevant to persistent HBV infection, and the regulatory mechanism of Treg levels remains unclear. E proteins are important transcriptional regulators and could be antagonized by inhibitors of DNA-binding (Id) 1-4. We aim to clarify the role of Ids during HBV infection. MAIN METHODS: Changes of Ids and their relationship with Treg were investigated in both HBV transfection model and hepatitis B patients. Significance of Ids was studied by in vitro Treg differentiation induction with Id inhibited or over-expressed. The role of inflammatory cytokines for Id was studied by co-culture. RNA-Seq was conducted to explore the differentially expressed genes in Id-overexpressed CD4 T cells upon Treg differentiation induction conditions. KEY FINDINGS: Id-overexpressed mice attenuated virus clearance in HBV transfection model. In the HBV transfection mouse model, Tregs were up-regulated, with Id3 increased in Treg as well. Clinically, circulating Tregs in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients were elevated, and elevated Id3 transcriptional levels were positively correlated with Tregs. IL-1ß could up-regulate Id3 in Treg cells induced in vitro. RNA-Seq revealed that increased Id could cause a series of signaling pathway changes during Treg differentiation. SIGNIFICANCE: Id3 is elevated during HBV infection to ease Treg differentiation, and the antiviral immunity is influenced that make the infection to develop into chronic state.

The essential role of PRAK in tumor metastasis and its therapeutic potential.

Metastasis is the leading cause of cancer-related death. Despite the recent advancements in cancer treatment, there is currently no approved therapy for metastasis. The present study reveals a potent and selective activity of PRAK in the regulation of tumor metastasis. While showing no apparent effect on the growth of primary breast cancers or subcutaneously inoculated tumor lines, Prak deficiency abrogates lung metastases in PyMT mice or mice receiving intravenous injection of tumor cells. Consistently, PRAK expression is closely associated with metastatic risk in human cancers. Further analysis indicates that loss of function of PRAK leads to a pronounced inhibition of HIF-1α protein synthesis, possibly due to reduced mTORC1 activities. Notably, pharmacological inactivation of PRAK with a clinically relevant inhibitor recapitulates the anti-metastatic effect of Prak depletion, highlighting the therapeutic potential of targeting PRAK in the control of metastasis.

TRAF3IP3 at the trans-Golgi network regulates NKT2 maturation via the MEK/ERK signaling pathway.

Thymic natural killer T (NKT)2 cells are a subset of invariant NKT cells with PLZFhiGATA3hiIL-4+. The differentiation of NKT2 cells is not fully understood. In the present study, we report an important role of TRAF3-interacting protein 3 (TRAF3IP3) in the functional maturation and expansion of committed NKT2s in thymic medulla. Mice with T-cell-specific deletion of TRAF3IP3 had decreased thymic NKT2 cells, decreased IL-4-producing peripheral iNKTs, and defects in response to α-galactosylceramide. Positive selection and high PLZF expression in CD24+CD44- and CCR7+CD44- immature iNKTs were not affected. Only CD44hiNK1.1- iNKTs in Traf3ip3-/- mice showed reduced expression of Egr2, PLZF, and IL-17RB, decreased proliferation, and reduced IL-4 production upon stimulation. This Egr2 and IL-4 expression was augmented by MEK1/ERK activation in iNKTs, and TRAF3IP3 at the trans-Golgi network recruited MEK1 and facilitated ERK phosphorylation and nuclear translocation. LTßR-regulated bone marrow-derived nonlymphoid cells in the medullary thymic microenvironment were required for MEK/ERK activation and NKT2 maturation. These data demonstrate an important functional maturation process in NKT2 differentiation that is regulated by MEK/ERK signaling at the trans-Golgi network.