Beating the heart failure odds: long-term survival after myocardial ischemia in juvenile rainbow trout.

Salmonid fish include some of the most valued cultured fish species worldwide. Unlike most other fish, the hearts of salmonids, including Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout, have a well-developed coronary circulation. Consequently, their hearts' reliance on oxygenation through coronary arteries leaves them prone to coronary lesions, believed to precipitate myocardial ischemia. Here, we mimicked such coronary lesions by subjecting groups of juvenile rainbow trout to coronary ligation, assessing histomorphological myocardial changes associated with ischemia and scarring in the context of cardiac arrhythmias using electrocardiography (ECG). Notable ECG changes resembling myocardial ischemia-like ECG in humans, such as atrioventricular blocks and abnormal ventricular depolarization (prolonged and fragmented QRS complex), as well as repolarization (long QT interval) patterns, were observed during the acute phase of myocardial ischemia. A remarkable 100% survival rate was observed among juvenile trout subjected to coronary ligation after 24 wk. Recovery from coronary ligation occurred through adaptive ventricular remodeling, coupled with a fast cardiac revascularization response. These findings carry significant implications for understanding the mechanisms governing cardiac health in salmonid fish, a family particularly susceptible to cardiac diseases. Furthermore, our results provide valuable insights into comparative studies on the evolution, pathophysiology, and ontogeny of vertebrate cardiac repair and restoration.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Juvenile rainbow trout exhibit a remarkable capacity to recover from cardiac injury caused by myocardial ischemia. Recovery from cardiac damage occurs through adaptive ventricular remodeling, coupled with a rapid cardiac revascularization response. These findings carry significant implications for understanding the mechanisms governing cardiac health within salmonid fishes, which are particularly susceptible to cardiac diseases.

High protein requirements of juvenile Atlantic wolffish, Anarhichas lupus: Effects of dietary protein levels on growth, health, and welfare.

The objective of the present study was to investigate the optimal dietary protein requirement and the effect of varying protein levels on the growth and health of juvenile, wild-caught Atlantic wolffish, Anarhichas lupus, a promising candidate for cold-water aquaculture diversification. Six iso-energetic (ca. 18.3 MJ kg-1), fish meal-based experimental diets were formulated with crude protein levels ranging from 35% to 60%, with graded increments of 5% in a 12-week feeding trial in a recirculating aquaculture system (RAS). Weight gain, specific growth rate (SGR), and condition factor (K) were evaluated in response to dietary protein levels. Liver, muscle, and blood parameters were assessed for possible changes in protein and lipid metabolism and welfare. Overall growth was highly variable throughout the experiment on all diets, as expected for a wild population. The feed with highest in protein (60%) inclusion resulted in the highest growth rates, with an average weight gain of 37.4% ± 33.8% and an SGR of 0.31% ± 0.2% day-1. This was closely followed by feeds with 55% and 50% protein inclusion with an average weight gain of 22.9% ± 34.8% and 28.5% ± 38.3%, respectively, and an SGR of 0.18% ± 0.3% day-1 and 0.22% ± 0.3% day-1, respectively. Fish fed the high protein diets generally had increased hepatic lipid deposition (17%-18%) and reduced free fatty acid levels (3.1-6.8 µmol L-1) in the plasma relative to fish that were fed the lower protein diets (35%-45%). No effects of diet were found on plasma protein levels or muscle protein content. Furthermore, stress parameters such as plasma cortisol and glucose levels were unaffected by diet, as were plasma ghrelin levels. Overall, these results suggest that a high protein inclusion in the diet for Atlantic wolffish is required to sustain growth with a minimum protein level of 50%.

Fish processing side streams are promising ingredients in diets for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) - Effects on growth physiology, appetite, and intestinal health.

Due to the growth of aquaculture and the finite supply of fishmeal and oil, alternative marine protein and lipid sources are highly sought after. Particularly promising is the use of side streams from the fish processing industry, allowing for the recovery and retention of otherwise lost nutrients in the food production chain. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the potential of three fish processing side streams as fish feed ingredients. The side streams originated from different stages of the production chain, were used without further processing, and included sprat trimmings (heads, frames, viscera), marinated herring (fillets) and mackerel in tomato sauce (fillets and sauce). The three side streams contained moderate levels of protein (28-32% dry matter) and high levels of lipid (34-43%). The sprat trimmings included ca. 29% ash and 1.5% phosphorous which may add value due to the high level of essential minerals but needs to be considered in feed formulations. Three diets were formulated to include 50% of each side stream replacing all fishmeal and ca. 80% of the fish oil of the control diet, which contained 35% fishmeal and 10% fish oil. The diets were evaluated in a 12-week feeding trial using rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Fish fed the sprat diet displayed the highest feed intake and growth, and showed no negative effects on the intestinal health. The mackerel side stream displayed a good digestibility but resulted in lower growth rates compared to the sprat trimmings. Fish fed the herring diet, displayed the lowest performance regarding growth, feed intake and digestibility. They further exhibited a reduction in nutrient uptake in both proximal and distal intestine, likely contributing to the observed lower digestibility and growth, and a reduction in plasma ghrelin levels. As part of a circular approach to increase marine lipid and protein production for fish feed, the tested sprat and mackerel side streams are promising raw materials however additional studies using more commercial-like feed formulations are encouraged.

Rainbow trout gastrointestinal mucus, mucin production, mucin glycosylation and response to lipopolysaccharide.

Mucus, whereof the highly glycosylated mucins are a major component, protects the epithelial mucosal surfaces. The aim of this study was to characterize the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) gastrointestinal mucus barrier function, mucin production, glycosylation and response to lipopolysaccharide. Both gastric and intestinal mucus was thick and impenetrable to bacteria-sized beads ex vivo. The secreted mucus covering the gastric epithelium predominantly contained sialylated mucins. Plume-like structures emerging from the gastric pits were both sialylated and fucosylated, indicating heterogeneity in gastric mucus secreted by the surface mucus cells and gland secretory cells, whereas intestinal mucus appeared more homogenous. In vivo metabolic mucin labelling revealed regional differences in mucin production and basal to apical transport, while lipopolysaccharide stimulation increased the rate of mucin production and basal to apical transport in both stomach and intestine. Using mass spectrometry, 34 mucin O-glycans were identified, with ∼70% of the relative abundance being sialylated, ∼40% di-sialylated and 20-25% fucosylated. No effects of lipopolysaccharide treatment were apparent regarding O-glycan repertoires, relative abundance of components, size distribution or core structures. Thus, the mucus production and organization differ between epithelial sites but provide a barrier to bacteria in both stomach and intestine. Furthermore, mucin production and basal to apical transport was stimulated by lipopolysaccharide in all regions, suggesting a mechanism to combat infections.

Atlantic Salmon Mucins Inhibit LuxS-Dependent A. Salmonicida AI-2 Quorum Sensing in an N-Acetylneuraminic Acid-Dependent Manner.

One of the most important bacterial diseases in salmonid aquaculture is furunculosis, caused by Aeromonas salmonicida. Bacterial communication through secreted autoinducer signals, quorum sensing, takes part in the regulation of gene expression in bacteria, influencing growth and virulence. The skin and mucosal surfaces, covered by a mucus layer, are the first point of contact between fish and bacteria. Mucins are highly glycosylated and are the main components of mucus. Here, we validate the Vibrio harveyi BB170 bioreporter assay for quantifying A. salmonicida quorum sensing and study the effects of Atlantic salmon mucins as well as mono- and disaccharides on the AI-2 levels of A. salmonicida. Atlantic salmon mucins from skin, pyloric ceca, proximal and distal intestine reduced A. salmonicida AI-2 levels. Among the saccharides abundant on mucins, fucose, N-acetylneuraminic acid and GlcNAcß1-3Gal inhibited AI-2 A. salmonicida secretion. Removal of N-acetylneuraminic acid, which is the most abundant terminal residue on mucin glycans on Atlantic salmon mucins, attenuated the inhibitory effects on AI-2 levels of A. salmonicida. Deletion of A. salmonicida luxS abolished AI-2 production. In conclusion, Atlantic salmon mucins regulate A. salmonicida quorum sensing in a luxS and N-acetylneuraminic acid-dependent manner.

It takes time to heal a broken heart: ventricular plasticity improves heart performance after myocardial infarction in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss.

Coronary arteriosclerosis is a common feature of both wild and farmed salmonid fishes and may be linked to stress-induced cardiac pathologies. Yet, the plasticity and capacity for long-term myocardial restructuring and recovery following a restriction in coronary blood supply are unknown. Here, we analyzed the consequences of acute (3 days) and chronic (from 33 to 62 days) coronary occlusion (i.e. coronary artery ligation) on cardiac morphological characteristics and in vivo function in juvenile rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Acute coronary artery occlusion resulted in elevated resting heart rate and decreased inter-beat variability, which are both markers of autonomic dysfunction following acute myocardial ischemia, along with severely reduced heart rate scope (maximum-resting heart rate) relative to sham-operated trout. We also observed a loss of myocardial interstitial collagen and compact myocardium. Following long-term coronary artery ligation, resting heart rate and heart rate scope normalized relative to sham-operated trout. Moreover, a distinct fibrous collagen layer separating the compact myocardium into two layers had formed. This may contribute to maintain ventricular integrity across the cardiac cycle or, alternatively, demark a region of the compact myocardium that continues to receive oxygen from the luminal venous blood. Taken together, we demonstrate that rainbow trout may cope with the aversive effects caused by coronary artery obstruction through plastic ventricular remodeling, which, at least in part, restores cardiac performance and myocardium oxygenation.

Effects of Size and Geographical Origin on Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, Mucin O-Glycan Repertoire.

Diseases cause ethical concerns and economic losses in the Salmonid industry. The mucus layer comprised of highly O-glycosylated mucins is the first contact between pathogens and fish. Mucin glycans govern pathogen adhesion, growth and virulence. The Atlantic salmon O-glycome from a single location has been characterized and the interindividual variation was low. Because interindividual variation is considered a population-based defense, hindering the entire population from being wiped out by a single infection, low interindividual variation among Atlantic salmon may be a concern. Here, we analyzed the O-glycome of 25 Atlantic salmon from six cohorts grown under various conditions from Sweden, Norway and Australia (Tasmania) using mass spectrometry. This expanded the known Atlantic salmon O-glycome by 60% to 169 identified structures. The mucin O-glycosylation was relatively stable over time within a geographical region, but the size of the fish affected skin mucin glycosylation. The skin mucin glycan repertoires from Swedish and Norwegian Atlantic salmon populations were closely related compared with Tasmanian ones, regardless of size and salinity, with differences in glycan size and composition. The internal mucin glycan repertoire also clustered based on geographical origin and into pyloric cecal and distal intestinal groups, regardless of cohort and fish size. Fucosylated structures were more abundant in Tasmanian pyloric caeca and distal intestine mucins compared with Swedish ones. Overall, Tasmanian Atlantic salmon mucins have more O-glycan structures in skin but less in the gastrointestinal tract compared with Swedish fish. Low interindividual variation was confirmed within each cohort. The results can serve as a library for identifying structures of importance for host-pathogen interactions, understanding population differences of salmon mucin glycosylation in resistance to diseases and during breeding and selection of strains. The results could make it possible to predict potential vulnerabilities to diseases and suggest that inter-region breeding may increase the glycan diversity.

Stress Impairs Skin Barrier Function and Induces α2-3 Linked N-Acetylneuraminic Acid and Core 1 O-Glycans on Skin Mucins in Atlantic Salmon, Salmo salar.

The skin barrier consists of mucus, primarily comprising highly glycosylated mucins, and the epithelium. Host mucin glycosylation governs interactions with pathogens and stress is associated with impaired epithelial barrier function. We characterized Atlantic salmon skin barrier function during chronic stress (high density) and mucin O-glycosylation changes in response to acute and chronic stress. Fish held at low (LD: 14-30 kg/m3) and high densities (HD: 50-80 kg/m3) were subjected to acute stress 24 h before sampling at 17 and 21 weeks after start of the experiment. Blood parameters indicated primary and secondary stress responses at both sampling points. At the second sampling, skin barrier function towards molecules was reduced in the HD compared to the LD group (Papp mannitol; p < 0.01). Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed 81 O-glycan structures from the skin. Fish subjected to both chronic and acute stress had an increased proportion of large O-glycan structures. Overall, four of the O-glycan changes have potential as indicators of stress, especially for the combined chronic and acute stress. Stress thus impairs skin barrier function and induces glycosylation changes, which have potential to both affect interactions with pathogens and serve as stress indicators.

Exploring the Arctic Charr Intestinal Glycome: Evidence of Increased N-Glycolylneuraminic Acid Levels and Changed Host-Pathogen Interactions in Response to Inflammation.

Disease outbreaks are a limiting factor for the sustainable development of the aquaculture industry. The intestinal tract is covered by a mucus layer mainly comprised by highly glycosylated proteins called mucins. Mucins regulate pathogen adhesion, growth, and virulence, and the glycans are vital for these functions. We analyzed intestinal mucin O-glycans on mucins from control and full-fat extruded soy-bean-fed (known to cause enteritis) Arctic charr using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In total, 56 glycans were identified on Arctic charr intestinal mucins, with a high prevalence of core-5-type and sialylated O-glycans. Disialic-acid-epitope-containing structures including NeuAcα2,8NeuAc, NeuAc(Gc)α2,8NeuGc(Ac), and NeuGcα2,8NeuGc were the hallmark of Arctic charr intestinal mucin glycosylation. Arctic charr fed with soy bean meal diet had lower (i) number of structures detected, (ii) interindividual variation, and (iii) N-glycolylneuraminic-acid-containing glycans compared with control Arctic charr. Furthermore, Aeromonas salmonicida grew less in response to mucins from inflamed Arctic charr than from the control group. The Arctic charr glycan repertoire differed from that of Atlantic salmon. In conclusion, the loss of N-glycolylneuraminic acid may be a biomarker for inflammation in Arctic char, and inflammation-induced glycosylation changes affect host-pathogen interactions.

Haematological and intestinal health parameters of rainbow trout are influenced by dietary live yeast and increased water temperature.

Live yeast may be a sustainable protein source in salmonid diets while exhibiting a probiotic effect to counteract environmental stressors, such as increased water temperature that is being exacerbated by climate change. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of feeding a high dietary inclusion of live yeast and increased water temperature on growth, haematological and intestinal physiology of rainbow trout. For six weeks, 129 g fish in 16 tanks (n = 4) were fed either a diet based on fishmeal or based on live yeast (214 g kg-1 of diet or 7.6 log CFU g-1 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae) that replaced 40% of fishmeal protein while fish were reared in water temperatures of either 11 °C (cold) or 18 °C (warm). Fish weights, caudal blood and proximal and distal intestines were collected and analysed. Fish fed live yeast resulted in reduced growth (SGR and WG) and higher FCR, while growth in cold and warm water was similar despite differences in TGC. However, increased mortality, plasma cortisol, and intestinal oedema and villous damage indicated fish reared in warm water were subjected to chronic stress. Temperature had a significant effect on haematocrit and red blood cell counts that resulted in significantly higher haemoglobin levels in fish kept in warm water attributed to an elevated oxygen demand. In the proximal intestine, increased temperature resulted in reduced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, e.g. TNFα and IL8, that were further reduced in fish fed live yeast. In addition, feeding live yeast reduced gene expression of CLD6 involved in gut barrier function, which suggests that the level of yeast was too high and masked any beneficial effects on fish health. In conclusion, feeding a high inclusion of live yeast reduced fish growth and expression of intestinal genes, while increasing the temperature from 11 to 18 °C subjected fish to chronic stress that restricted growth, suppressed innate immunity and induced intestinal damage. Replacing 40% of fishmeal protein with live yeast did not counteract negative effects caused by increased temperature, thus alternative strategies need to be explored and implemented to protect the growth and health of rainbow trout from seasonal and long-term rises in water temperature.

Calcium transfer across the outer mantle epithelium in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas.

Calcium transport is essential for bivalves to be able to build and maintain their shells. Ionized calcium (Ca2+) is taken up from the environment and eventually transported through the outer mantle epithelium (OME) to the shell growth area. However, the mechanisms behind this process are poorly understood. The objective of the present study was to characterize the Ca2+ transfer performed by the OME of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, as well as to develop an Ussing chamber technique for the functional assessment of transport activities in epithelia of marine bivalves. Kinetic studies revealed that the Ca2+ transfer across the OME consists of one saturable and one linear component, of which the saturable component fits best to Michaelis-Menten kinetics and is characterized by a Km of 6.2 mM and a Vmax of 3.3 nM min-1 The transcellular transfer of Ca2+ accounts for approximately 60% of the total Ca2+ transfer across the OME of C. gigas at environmental Ca2+ concentrations. The use of the pharmacological inhibitors: verapamil, ouabain and caloxin 1a1 revealed that voltage-gated Ca2+-channels, plasma-membrane Ca2+-ATPase and Na+/Ca2+-exchanger all participate in the transcellular Ca2+ transfer across the OME and a model for this Ca2+ transfer is presented and discussed.

Structural and functional maturation of skin during metamorphosis in the Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus).

To establish if the developmental changes in the primary barrier and osmoregulatory capacity of Atlantic halibut skin are modified during metamorphosis, histological, histochemical, gene expression and electrophysiological measurements were made. The morphology of the ocular and abocular skin started to diverge during the metamorphic climax and ocular skin appeared thicker and more stratified. Neutral mucins were the main glycoproteins produced by the goblet cells in skin during metamorphosis. Moreover, the number of goblet cells producing neutral mucins increased during metamorphosis and asymmetry in their abundance was observed between ocular and abocular skin. The increase in goblet cell number and their asymmetric abundance in skin was concomitant with the period that thyroid hormones (THs) increase and suggests that they may be under the control of these hormones. Several mucin transcripts were identified in metamorphosing halibut transcriptomes and Muc18 and Muc5AC were characteristic of the body skin. Na+, K+-ATPase positive (NKA) cells were observed in skin of all metamorphic stages but their number significantly decreased with the onset of metamorphosis. No asymmetry was observed between ocular and abocular skin in NKA cells. The morphological changes observed were linked to modified skin barrier function as revealed by modifications in its electrophysiological properties. However, the maturation of the skin functional characteristics preceded structural maturation and occurred at stage 8 prior to the metamorphic climax. Treatment of Atlantic halibut with the THs disrupter methimazole (MMI) affected the number of goblet cells producing neutral mucins and the NKA cells. The present study reveals that the asymmetric development of the skin in Atlantic halibut is TH sensitive and is associated with metamorphosis and that this barrier's functional properties mature earlier and are independent of metamorphosis.

Rainbow Trout Maintain Intestinal Transport and Barrier Functions Following Exposure to Polystyrene Microplastics.

Ingestion has been proposed as a prominent exposure route for plastic debris in aquatic organisms, including fish. While the consequences of ingestion of large plastic litter are mostly understood, the impacts resulting from ingestion of microplastics (MPs) are largely unknown. We designed a study that aimed to assess impacts of MPs on fish intestinal physiology and examined integrity of extrinsic, physical and immunological barriers. Rainbow trout were exposed to polystyrene (PS) MPs (100-400 µm) via feed for a period of 4 weeks. Fish were fed four types of diets: control, diets containing virgin PS particles, or particles exposed to two different environmental matrices (sewage or harbor effluent). Extrinsic barrier disturbance in intestinal tissue was evaluated via histology. The paracellular permeability toward ions and molecules was examined using Ussing chambers and mRNA expression analysis of tight junction proteins. Active transport was monitored as transepithelial potential difference, short-circuits current and uptake rate of amino acid 3H-lysine. Immune status parameters were measured through mRNA expression level of cytokines, lysozyme activity, and hematological analysis of immune cells. We could not show that PS MPs induced inflammatory responses or acted as physical or chemical hazards upon ingestion. No measurable effects were exerted on fish intestinal permeability, active transport or electrophysiology.

Effects of coeliacomesenteric blood flow reduction on intestinal barrier function in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss.

The aim of the current work was to elucidate if there is a connection between stress-induced decrease in coeliacomesenteric artery blood flow (i.e. gastrointestinal blood flow; GBF) and disruption of the intestinal primary barrier in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Upon initiation of a 15 min acute chasing stress, the GBF decreased instantly by c. 92%. The GBF then slowly increased and reached c. 28% of resting values at the end of the stress protocol. After the stress was ceased, the GBF slowly increased and returned to resting values within c. 45 min. Intestinal permeability assessment in an Ussing-chambers set-up revealed impaired intestinal barrier function 24 h after stress. When the stress-induced GBF reduction was mimicked by an experimental occlusion of the coeliacomesenteric artery for 15 min followed by 24 h recovery, no effect on intestinal barrier function was observed. These results suggest that no direct causal relationship can be found between the GBF reduction and development of intestinal barrier dysfunction following periods of acute stress in this species of fish.

Aeromonas salmonicida Growth in Response to Atlantic Salmon Mucins Differs between Epithelial Sites, Is Governed by Sialylated and N-Acetylhexosamine-Containing O-Glycans, and Is Affected by Ca2.

Aeromonas salmonicida causes furunculosis in salmonids and is a threat to Atlantic salmon aquaculture. The epithelial surfaces that the pathogen colonizes are covered by a mucus layer predominantly comprised of secreted mucins. By using mass spectrometry to identify mucin glycan structures with and without enzymatic removal of glycan residues, coupled to measurements of bacterial growth, we show here that the complex Atlantic salmon intestinal mucin glycans enhance A. salmonicida growth, whereas the more simple skin mucin glycans do not. Of the glycan residues present terminally on the salmon mucins, only N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) enhances growth. Sialic acids, which have an abundance of 75% among terminal glycans from skin and of <50% among intestinal glycans, cannot be removed or used by A. salmonicida for growth-enhancing purposes, and they shield internal GlcNAc from utilization. A Ca2+ concentration above 0.1 mM is needed for A. salmonicida to be able to utilize mucins for growth-promoting purposes, and 10 mM further enhances both A. salmonicida growth in response to mucins and binding of the bacterium to mucins. In conclusion, GlcNAc and sialic acids are important determinants of the A. salmonicida interaction with its host at the mucosal surface. Furthermore, since the mucin glycan repertoire affects pathogen growth, the glycan repertoire may be a factor to take into account during breeding and selection of strains for aquaculture.

Atlantic Salmon Carries a Range of Novel O-Glycan Structures Differentially Localized on Skin and Intestinal Mucins.

Aquaculture is a growing industry, increasing the need for understanding host-pathogen interactions in fish. The skin and mucosal surfaces, covered by a mucus layer composed of mucins, is the first point of contact between fish and pathogens. Highly O-glycosylated mucins have been shown to be an important part of the defense against pathogens, and pathogens bind to host surfaces using lectin-like adhesins. However, knowledge of piscine O-glycosylation is very limited. We characterized mucin O-glycosylation of five freshwater acclimated Atlantic salmon, using mass spectrometry. Of the 109 O-glycans found, most were sialylated and differed in distribution among skin, pyloric ceca, and proximal and distal intestine. Skin O-glycans were shorter (2-6 residues) and less diverse (33 structures) than intestinal O-glycans (2-13 residues, 93 structures). Skin mucins carried O-glycan cores 1, 2, 3, and 5 and three types of sialic acids (Neu5Ac, Neu5Gc, and Kdn) and had sialyl-Tn as the predominant structure. Intestinal mucins carried only cores 1, 2, and 5, Neu5Ac was the only sialic acid present, and sialylated core 5 was the most dominant structure. This structural characterization can be used for identifying structures of putative importance in host-pathogen interactions for further testing in biological assays and disease intervention therapies.

Aeromonas salmonicida binds differentially to mucins isolated from skin and intestinal regions of Atlantic salmon in an N-acetylneuraminic acid-dependent manner.

Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida infection, also known as furunculosis disease, is associated with high morbidity and mortality in salmonid aquaculture. The first line of defense the pathogen encounters is the mucus layer, which is predominantly comprised of secreted mucins. Here we isolated and characterized mucins from the skin and intestinal tract of healthy Atlantic salmon and studied how A. salmonicida bound to them. The mucins from the skin, pyloric ceca, and proximal and distal intestine mainly consisted of mucins soluble in chaotropic agents. The mucin density and mucin glycan chain length from the skin were lower than were seen with mucin from the intestinal tract. A. salmonicida bound to the mucins isolated from the intestinal tract to a greater extent than to the skin mucins. The mucins from the intestinal regions had higher levels of sialylation than the skin mucins. Desialylating intestinal mucins decreased A. salmonicida binding, whereas desialylation of skin mucins resulted in complete loss of binding. In line with this, A. salmonicida also bound better to mammalian mucins with high levels of sialylation, and N-acetylneuraminic acid appeared to be the sialic acid whose presence was imperative for binding. Thus, sialylated structures are important for A. salmonicida binding, suggesting a pivotal role for sialylation in mucosal defense. The marked differences in sialylation as well as A. salmonicida binding between the skin and intestinal tract suggest interorgan differences in the host-pathogen interaction and in the mucin defense against A. salmonicida.

Microplastics in aquaculture - Potential impacts on inflammatory processes in Nile tilapia.

Aquaculture is essential for meeting the growing global demand for fish consumption. However, the widespread use of plastic and the presence of microplastics in aquaculture systems raise concerns about their impact on fish health and the safety of aquaculture products. This study focused on the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), one of the most important aquaculture fish species globally. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of dietary exposure to a mixture of four conventional fossil fuel-based polymers (microplastics) on the health of adult and juvenile Nile tilapia. Two experiments were conducted, with 36 juvenile tilapia (10-40 g weight) exposed for 30 days and 24 adult tilapia (600-1000 g) exposed for 7 days, the former including a natural particle (kaolin) treatment. In the adult tilapia experiment, no significant effects on intestinal health (Ussing chamber method), oxidative stress, or inflammatory pathways (enzymatic and genetic biomarkers) were observed after exposure to the microplastic mixture. However, in the juvenile tilapia experiment, significant alterations in inflammatory pathways were observed following 30 days of exposure to the microplastic mixture, indicating potential adverse effects on fish health. These results highlight the potential negative impacts of microplastics on fish health and the economics and safety of aquaculture.

Modulation of innate immune responses in Atlantic salmon by chronic hypoxia-induced stress.

Atlantic salmon post-smolts were exposed to either chronic hypoxic (Hy) or normal oxygen (No) conditions in seawater tanks for 58 days, mimicking conditions typical of sea cages for farmed salmon at some periods of the year. By day 29 head kidney macrophages were isolated and subjected to in vitro poly I:C stimulation to simulate viral infection, and samples were collected over 48 h. By day 58 fish were subjected to in vivo stimulation using poly I:C or a Vibrio water-based vaccine to simulate viral or bacterial infection, respectively. The fish were monitored for stress responses and expression of several pro-inflammatory genes in head kidney and intestinal tissue up to five days post-injection. Stress load was monitored by plasma cortisol estimation at days 29 and 58, and on days 1, 2, 3 and 5 post-injection in the in vivo trial. Hy exposure resulted in elevated plasma cortisol levels on day 29 compared to No, while on day 58 cortisol levels were higher in the control group. Additionally, both poly I:C and the Vibrio vaccine gave significantly increased cortisol levels one day post-injection compared to PBS treated controls, irrespective of previous oxygen exposure. In vitro stimulation of macrophages with poly I:C revealed higher IFNα mRNA levels at 6, 12 and 24 h and for Mx at 12 and 24 h post-stimulation, for both No and Hy individuals. Moreover, IFNα levels were higher in No than in Hy individuals at all time points, and a similar difference was seen in Mx at 48 h. In vivo stimulation with poly I:C elicited strong elevation of the IL-1ß, IFNγ, Mx and IP10 mRNA transcripts in head kidney, while TNFα1 and IFNα were found unaffected. The Vibrio vaccine elicited a strong up regulation of IL-1ß, IFNγ and IP10 mRNA, whereas Mx, TNFα1 and IFNα appeared unchanged. Significant differences in expression between different oxygen exposure groups were found for all genes and both stimuli. The overall trend suggests that long-term hypoxia either reduces or delays the expression of these genes in head kidney. Expression of IFNγ and Mx in intestinal tissues also showed a strong up regulation of the genes following poly I:C stimulation, and also here the overall trend suggests that chronic hypoxia results in a lower or delayed expression of the measured genes. In summary, our results indicate that chronic hypoxia modulates the expression of important immune related genes putatively altering the immune response. As the effect is present in isolated macrophages as well as head kidney and intestinal tissue the modulation appears to be affecting local as well as systemic responses.

Health of farmed fish: its relation to fish welfare and its utility as welfare indicator.

This brief review focuses on health and biological function as cornerstones of fish welfare. From the function-based point of view, good welfare is reflected in the ability of the animal to cope with infectious and non-infectious stressors, thereby maintaining homeostasis and good health, whereas stressful husbandry conditions and protracted suffering will lead to the loss of the coping ability and, thus, to impaired health. In the first part of the review, the physiological processes through which stressful husbandry conditions modulate health of farmed fish are examined. If fish are subjected to unfavourable husbandry conditions, the resulting disruption of internal homeostasis necessitates energy-demanding physiological adjustments (allostasis/acclimation). The ensuing energy drain leads to trade-offs with other energy-demanding processes such as the functioning of the primary epithelial barriers (gut, skin, gills) and the immune system. Understanding of the relation between husbandry conditions, allostatic responses and fish health provides the basis for the second theme developed in this review, the potential use of biological function and health parameters as operational welfare indicators (OWIs). Advantages of function- and health-related parameters are that they are relatively straightforward to recognize and to measure and are routinely monitored in most aquaculture units, thereby providing feasible tools to assess fish welfare under practical farming conditions. As the efforts to improve fish welfare and environmental sustainability lead to increasingly diverse solutions, in particular integrated production, it is imperative that we have objective OWIs to compare with other production forms, such as high-density aquaculture. However, to receive the necessary acceptance for legislation, more robust scientific backing of the health- and function-related OWIs is urgently needed.