Impact of Immunosuppressive Agents on Clinical Manifestations and Outcome of Staphylococcus aureus Bloodstream Infection: A Propensity Score-Matched Analysis in 2 Large, Prospectively Evaluated Cohorts.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection (SAB) is a common, life-threatening infection. The impact of immunosuppressive agents on the outcome of patients with SAB is incompletely understood. METHODS: Data from 2 large prospective, international, multicenter cohort studies (Invasive Staphylococcus aureus Infections Cohort [INSTINCT] and International Staphylococcus aureus Collaboration [ISAC]) between 2006 and 2015 were analyzed. Patients receiving immunosuppressive agents were identified and a 1:1 propensity score-matched analysis was performed to adjust for baseline characteristics of patients. Overall survival and time to SAB-related late complications (SAB relapse, infective endocarditis, osteomyelitis, or other deep-seated manifestations) were analyzed by Cox regression and competing risk analyses, respectively. This approach was then repeated for specific immunosuppressive agents (corticosteroid monotherapy and immunosuppressive agents other than steroids [IMOTS]). RESULTS: Of 3188 analyzed patients, 309 were receiving immunosuppressive treatment according to our definitions and were matched to 309 nonimmunosuppressed patients. After propensity score matching, baseline characteristics were well balanced. In the Cox regression analysis, we observed no significant difference in survival between the 2 groups (death during follow-up: 105/309 [33.9%] immunosuppressed vs 94/309 [30.4%] nonimmunosuppressed; hazard ratio [HR], 1.20 [95% confidence interval {CI}, .84-1.71]). Competing risk analysis showed a cause-specific HR of 1.81 (95% CI, .85-3.87) for SAB-related late complications in patients receiving immunosuppressive agents. The cause-specific HR was higher in patients taking IMOTS (3.69 [95% CI, 1.41-9.68]). CONCLUSIONS: Immunosuppressive agents were not associated with an overall higher mortality. The risk for SAB-related late complications in patients receiving specific immunosuppressive agents such as IMOTS warrants further investigations.

Adjunctive rifampicin for Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia (ARREST): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia is a common cause of severe community-acquired and hospital-acquired infection worldwide. We tested the hypothesis that adjunctive rifampicin would reduce bacteriologically confirmed treatment failure or disease recurrence, or death, by enhancing early S aureus killing, sterilising infected foci and blood faster, and reducing risks of dissemination and metastatic infection. METHODS: In this multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, adults (≥18 years) with S aureus bacteraemia who had received ≤96 h of active antibiotic therapy were recruited from 29 UK hospitals. Patients were randomly assigned (1:1) via a computer-generated sequential randomisation list to receive 2 weeks of adjunctive rifampicin (600 mg or 900 mg per day according to weight, oral or intravenous) versus identical placebo, together with standard antibiotic therapy. Randomisation was stratified by centre. Patients, investigators, and those caring for the patients were masked to group allocation. The primary outcome was time to bacteriologically confirmed treatment failure or disease recurrence, or death (all-cause), from randomisation to 12 weeks, adjudicated by an independent review committee masked to the treatment. Analysis was intention to treat. This trial was registered, number ISRCTN37666216, and is closed to new participants. FINDINGS: Between Dec 10, 2012, and Oct 25, 2016, 758 eligible participants were randomly assigned: 370 to rifampicin and 388 to placebo. 485 (64%) participants had community-acquired S aureus infections, and 132 (17%) had nosocomial S aureus infections. 47 (6%) had meticillin-resistant infections. 301 (40%) participants had an initial deep infection focus. Standard antibiotics were given for 29 (IQR 18-45) days; 619 (82%) participants received flucloxacillin. By week 12, 62 (17%) of participants who received rifampicin versus 71 (18%) who received placebo experienced treatment failure or disease recurrence, or died (absolute risk difference -1·4%, 95% CI -7·0 to 4·3; hazard ratio 0·96, 0·68-1·35, p=0·81). From randomisation to 12 weeks, no evidence of differences in serious (p=0·17) or grade 3-4 (p=0·36) adverse events were observed; however, 63 (17%) participants in the rifampicin group versus 39 (10%) in the placebo group had antibiotic or trial drug-modifying adverse events (p=0·004), and 24 (6%) versus six (2%) had drug interactions (p=0·0005). INTERPRETATION: Adjunctive rifampicin provided no overall benefit over standard antibiotic therapy in adults with S aureus bacteraemia. FUNDING: UK National Institute for Health Research Health Technology Assessment.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Bloodstream Infections Presenting with Septic Shock in Neutropenic Cancer Patients: Impact of Empirical Antibiotic Therapy.

This large, multicenter, retrospective cohort study including onco-hematological neutropenic patients with Pseudomonas aeruginosa bloodstream infection (PABSI) found that among 1213 episodes, 411 (33%) presented with septic shock. The presence of solid tumors (33.3% vs. 20.2%, p < 0.001), a high-risk Multinational Association for Supportive Care in Cancer (MASCC) index score (92.6% vs. 57.4%; p < 0.001), pneumonia (38% vs. 19.2% p < 0.001), and infection due to multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa (MDRPA) (33.8% vs. 21.1%, p < 0.001) were statistically significantly higher in patients with septic shock compared to those without. Patients with septic shock were more likely to receive inadequate empirical antibiotic therapy (IEAT) (21.7% vs. 16.2%, p = 0.020) and to present poorer outcomes, including a need for ICU admission (74% vs. 10.5%; p < 0.001), mechanical ventilation (49.1% vs. 5.6%; p < 0.001), and higher 7-day and 30-day case fatality rates (58.2% vs. 12%, p < 0.001, and 74% vs. 23.1%, p < 0.001, respectively). Risk factors for 30-day case fatality rate in patients with septic shock were orotracheal intubation, IEAT, infection due to MDRPA, and persistent PABSI. Therapy with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and BSI from the urinary tract were associated with improved survival. Carbapenems were the most frequent IEAT in patients with septic shock, and the use of empirical combination therapy showed a tendency towards improved survival. Our findings emphasize the need for tailored management strategies in this high-risk population.

Impact of adherence to individual quality-of-care indicators on the prognosis of bloodstream infection due to Staphylococcus aureus: a prospective observational multicentre cohort.

OBJECTIVES: To analyse the adherence and impact of quality-of-care indicators (QCIs) in the management of Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection in a prospective and multicentre cohort. METHODS: Analysis of the prospective, multicentre international S. Aureus Collaboration cohort of S. Aureus bloodstream infection cases observed between January 2013 and April 2015. Multivariable analysis was performed to evaluate the impact of adherence to QCIs on 90-day mortality. RESULTS: A total of 1784 cases were included. Overall, 90-day mortality was 29.9% and mean follow-up period was 118 days. Adherence was 67% (n = 1180/1762) for follow-up blood cultures, 31% (n = 416/1342) for early focus control, 77.6% (n = 546/704) for performance of echocardiography, 75.5% (n = 1348/1784) for adequacy of targeted antimicrobial therapy, 88.6% (n = 851/960) for adequacy of treatment duration in non-complicated bloodstream infections and 61.2% (n = 366/598) in complicated bloodstream infections. Full bundle adherence was 18.4% (n = 328/1784). After controlling for immortal time bias and potential confounders, focus control (adjusted hazard ratio = 0.76; 95% CI, 0.59-0.99; p 0.038) and adequate targeted antimicrobial therapy (adjusted hazard ratio = 0.75; 95% CI, 0.61-0.91; p 0.004) were associated with low 90-day mortality. DISCUSSION: Adherence to QCIs in S. Aureus bloodstream infection did not reach expected rates. Apart from the benefits of application as a bundle, focus control and adequate targeted therapy were independently associated with low mortality.

Impact of neutropenia on clinical manifestations and outcome of Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: a propensity score-based overlap weight analysis in two large, prospectively evaluated cohorts.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate whether neutropenia influenced mortality and long-term outcomes of Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream (SAB) infection. METHODS: Data from two prospective, multicentre cohort studies (INSTINCT and ISAC) conducted at 20 tertiary care hospitals in six countries between 2006 and 2015 were analyzed. Neutropenic and severely neutropenic patients (defined by proxy of total white blood cell count <1000/µl and <500/µl, respectively, at onset of SAB infection) were compared with a control group using a propensity score model and overlapping weights to adjust for baseline characteristics. Overall survival and time to SAB infection-related late complications (SAB infection recurrence, infective endocarditis, osteomyelitis, or other deep-seated manifestations) were analyzed with Cox regression and competing risk analyses, respectively. RESULTS: Of the 3187 included patients, 102 were neutropenic and 70 severely neutropenic at the time of SAB infection onset. Applying overlap weights yielded two groups of 83 neutropenic and 220 nonneutropenic patients, respectively. The baseline characteristics of these groups were exactly balanced. In the Cox regression analysis, we observed no significant difference in survival between the two groups (death during follow up: 36.1% in neutropenic vs. 30.6% in nonneutropenic patients; hazard ratio (HR): 1.21; 95% CI, 0.79-1.83). This finding remained unchanged when we considered severely neutropenic patients (HR: 1.08; 95% CI, 0.60-1.94). A competing risk analysis showed a cause-specific HR of 0.39 (95% CI, 0.11-1.39) for SAB infection-related late complications in neutropenic patients. DISCUSSION: Neutropenia was not associated with a higher survival rate during follow up. The lower rate of SAB infection-related late complications in neutropenic patients should be validated in other cohorts.

Effect of Combination Antibiotic Empirical Therapy on Mortality in Neutropenic Cancer Patients with Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pneumonia.

To assess the effect of combination antibiotic empirical therapy on 30-day case-fatality rate in neutropenic cancer patients with Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) bacteremic pneumonia. This was a multinational, retrospective cohort study of neutropenic onco-hematological patients with PA bloodstream infection (BSI) (2006−2018). The effect of appropriate empirical combination therapy, appropriate monotherapy and inappropriate empirical antibiotic therapy [IEAT] on 30-day case-fatality was assessed only in patients with PA bacteremic pneumonia. Among 1017 PA BSI episodes, pneumonia was the source of BSI in 294 (28.9%). Among those, 52 (17.7%) were caused by a multidrug-resistant (MDR) strain and 68 (23.1%) received IEAT, mainly when the infection was caused by an MDR strain [38/52 (73.1%) vs. 30/242 (12.4%); p < 0.001]. The 30-day case-fatality rate was higher in patients with PA bacteremic pneumonia than in those with PA BSI from other sources (55.1% vs. 31.4%; p < 0.001). IEAT was associated with increased 30-day case-fatality (aHR 1.44 [95%CI 1.01−2.03]; p = 0.042), whereas the use of appropriate combination empirical treatment was independently associated with improved survival (aHR 0.46 [95%CI 0.27−0.78]; p = 0.004). Appropriate empirical monotherapy was not associated with improved overall survival (aHR 1.25 [95%CI 0.76−2.05]; p = 0.39). Combination antibiotic empirical therapy should be administered promptly in febrile neutropenic patients with suspected pneumonia as the source of infection.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Bloodstream Infections in Patients with Cancer: Differences between Patients with Hematological Malignancies and Solid Tumors.

Objectives: To assess the clinical features and outcomes of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bloodstream infection (PA BSI) in neutropenic patients with hematological malignancies (HM) and with solid tumors (ST), and identify the risk factors for 30-day mortality. Methods: We performed a large multicenter, retrospective cohort study including onco-hematological neutropenic patients with PA BSI conducted across 34 centers in 12 countries (January 2006−May 2018). Episodes occurring in hematologic patients were compared to those developing in patients with ST. Risk factors associated with 30-day mortality were investigated in both groups. Results: Of 1217 episodes of PA BSI, 917 occurred in patients with HM and 300 in patients with ST. Hematological patients had more commonly profound neutropenia (0.1 × 109 cells/mm) (67% vs. 44.6%; p < 0.001), and a high risk Multinational Association for Supportive Care in Cancer (MASCC) index score (32.2% vs. 26.7%; p = 0.05). Catheter-infection (10.7% vs. 4.7%; p = 0.001), mucositis (2.4% vs. 0.7%; p = 0.042), and perianal infection (3.6% vs. 0.3%; p = 0.001) predominated as BSI sources in the hematological patients, whereas pneumonia (22.9% vs. 33.7%; p < 0.001) and other abdominal sites (2.8% vs. 6.3%; p = 0.006) were more common in patients with ST. Hematological patients had more frequent BSI due to multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa (MDRPA) (23.2% vs. 7.7%; p < 0.001), and were more likely to receive inadequate initial antibiotic therapy (IEAT) (20.1% vs. 12%; p < 0.001). Patients with ST presented more frequently with septic shock (45.8% vs. 30%; p < 0.001), and presented worse outcomes, with increased 7-day (38% vs. 24.2%; p < 0.001) and 30-day (49% vs. 37.3%; p < 0.001) case-fatality rates. Risk factors for 30-day mortality in hematologic patients were high risk MASCC index score, IEAT, pneumonia, infection due to MDRPA, and septic shock. Risk factors for 30-day mortality in patients with ST were high risk MASCC index score, IEAT, persistent BSI, and septic shock. Therapy with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor was associated with survival in both groups. Conclusions: The clinical features and outcomes of PA BSI in neutropenic cancer patients showed some differences depending on the underlying malignancy. Considering these differences and the risk factors for mortality may be useful to optimize their therapeutic management. Among the risk factors associated with overall mortality, IEAT and the administration of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor were the only modifiable variables.

Antimicrobial resistance determinants are associated with Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia and adaptation to the healthcare environment: a bacterial genome-wide association study.

Staphylococcus aureus is a major bacterial pathogen in humans, and a dominant cause of severe bloodstream infections. Globally, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in S. aureus remains challenging. While human risk factors for infection have been defined, contradictory evidence exists for the role of bacterial genomic variation in S. aureus disease. To investigate the contribution of bacterial lineage and genomic variation to the development of bloodstream infection, we undertook a genome-wide association study comparing bacteria from 1017 individuals with bacteraemia to 984 adults with asymptomatic S. aureus nasal carriage. Within 984 carriage isolates, we also compared healthcare-associated (HA) carriage with community-associated (CA) carriage. All major global lineages were represented in both bacteraemia and carriage, with no evidence for different infection rates. However, kmers tagging trimethoprim resistance-conferring mutation F99Y in dfrB were significantly associated with bacteraemia-vs-carriage (P=10-8.9-10-9.3). Pooling variation within genes, bacteraemia-vs-carriage was associated with the presence of mecA (HMP=10-5.3) as well as the presence of SCCmec (HMP=10-4.4). Among S. aureus carriers, no lineages were associated with HA-vs-CA carriage. However, we found a novel signal of HA-vs-CA carriage in the foldase protein prsA, where kmers representing conserved sequence allele were associated with CA carriage (P=10-7.1-10-19.4), while in gyrA, a ciprofloxacin resistance-conferring mutation, L84S, was associated with HA carriage (P=10-7.2). In an extensive study of S. aureus bacteraemia and nasal carriage in the UK, we found strong evidence that all S. aureus lineages are equally capable of causing bloodstream infection, and of being carried in the healthcare environment. Genomic variation in the foldase protein prsA is a novel genomic marker of healthcare origin in S. aureus but was not associated with bacteraemia. AMR determinants were associated with both bacteraemia and healthcare-associated carriage, suggesting that AMR increases the propensity not only to survive in healthcare environments, but also to cause invasive disease.

Defining persistent Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: secondary analysis of a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus aureus persistent bacteraemia is only vaguely defined and the effect of different durations of bacteraemia on mortality is not well established. Our primary aim was to analyse mortality according to duration of bacteraemia and to derive a clinically relevant definition for persistent bacteraemia. METHODS: We did a secondary analysis of a prospective observational cohort study at 17 European centres (nine in the UK, six in Spain, and two in Germany), with recruitment between Jan 1, 2013, and April 30, 2015. Adult patients who were consecutively hospitalised with monomicrobial S aureus bacteraemia were included. Patients were excluded if no follow-up blood culture was taken, if the first follow-up blood-culture was after 7 days, or if active antibiotic therapy was started more than 3 days after first blood culture. The primary outcome was 90-day mortality. Univariable and time-dependent multivariable Cox regression analysis were used to assess predictors of mortality. Duration of bacteraemia was defined as bacteraemic days under active antibiotic therapy counting the first day as day 1. FINDINGS: Of 1588 individuals assessed for eligibility, 987 were included (median age 65 years [IQR 51-75]; 625 [63%] male). Death within 90 days occurred in 273 (28%) patients. Patients with more than 1 day of bacteraemia (315 [32%]) had higher Charlson comorbidity index and sequential organ failure assessment scores and a longer interval from first symptom to first blood culture. Crude 90-day mortality increased from 22% (148 of 672) with 1 day of bacteraemia, to 39% (85 of 218) with 2-4 days, 43% (30 of 69) with 5-7 days, and 36% (10 of 28) with more than 7 days of bacteraemia. Metastatic infections developed in 39 (6%) of 672 patients with 1 day of bacteraemia versus 40 (13%) of 315 patients if bacteraemia lasted for at least 2 days. The second day of bacteraemia had the highest HR and earliest cutoff significantly associated with mortality (adjusted hazard ratio 1·93, 95% CI 1·51-2·46; p<0·0001). INTERPRETATION: We suggest redefining the cutoff duration for persistent bacteraemia as 2 days or more despite active antibiotic therapy. Our results favour follow-up blood cultures after 24 h for early identification of all patients with increased risk of death and metastatic infection. FUNDING: None.

Impact of antibiotic resistance on outcomes of neutropenic cancer patients with Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteraemia (IRONIC study): study protocol of a retrospective multicentre international study.

INTRODUCTION: Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) has historically been one of the major causes of severe sepsis and death among neutropenic cancer patients. There has been a recent increase of multidrug-resistant PA (MDRPA) isolates that may determine a worse prognosis, particularly in immunosuppressed patients. The aim of this study is to establish the impact of antibiotic resistance on the outcome of neutropenic onco-haematological patients with PA bacteraemia, and to identify the risk factors for MDRPA bacteraemia and mortality. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This is a retrospective, observational, multicentre, international study. All episodes of PA bacteraemia occurring in neutropenic onco-haematological patients followed up at the participating centres from 1 January 2006 to 31 May 2018 will be retrospectively reviewed. The primary end point will be overall case-fatality rate within 30 days of onset of PA bacteraemia. The secondary end points will be to describe the following: the incidence and risk factors for multidrug-resistant and extremely drug-resistant PA bacteraemia (by comparing the episodes due to susceptible PA with those produced by MDRPA), the efficacy of ceftolozane/tazobactam, the rates of persistent bacteraemia and bacteraemia relapse and the risk factors for very early (48 hours), early (7 days) and overall (30 days) case-fatality rates. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The Clinical Research Ethics Committee of Bellvitge University Hospital approved the protocol of the study at the primary site. To protect personal privacy, identifying information of each patient in the electronic database will be encrypted. The processing of the patients' personal data collected in the study will comply with the Spanish Data Protection Act of 1998 and with the European Directive on the privacy of data. All data collected, stored and processed will be anonymised. Results will be reported at conferences and in peer-reviewed publications.

Survival following Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: A prospective multinational cohort study assessing the impact of place of care.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection (SAB) is a common, life-threatening infection with a high mortality. Survival can be improved by implementing quality of care bundles in hospitals. We previously observed marked differences in mortality between hospitals and now assessed whether mortality could serve as a valid and easy to implement quality of care outcome measure. METHODS: We conducted a prospective observational study between January 2013 and April 2015 on consecutive, adult patients with SAB from 11 tertiary care centers in Germany, South Korea, Spain, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom. Factors associated with mortality at 90 days were analyzed by Cox proportional hazards regression and flexible parametric models. RESULTS: 1851 patients with a median age of 66 years (64% male) were analyzed. Crude 90-day mortality differed significantly between hospitals (range 23-39%). Significant variation between centers was observed for methicillin-resistant S. aureus, community-acquisition, infective foci, as well as measures of comorbidities, and severity of disease. In multivariable analysis, factors independently associated with mortality at 90 days were age, nosocomial acquisition, unknown infective focus, pneumonia, Charlson comorbidity index, SOFA score, and study center. The risk of death varied over time differently for each infective focus. Crude mortality differed markedly from adjusted mortality. DISCUSSION: We observed significant differences in adjusted mortality between hospitals, suggesting differences in quality of care. However, mortality is strongly influenced by patient mix and thus, crude mortality is not a suitable quality indicator.

Adjunctive rifampicin to reduce early mortality from Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: the ARREST RCT.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia is a common and frequently fatal infection. Adjunctive rifampicin may enhance early S. aureus killing, sterilise infected foci and blood faster, and thereby reduce the risk of dissemination, metastatic infection and death. OBJECTIVES: To determine whether or not adjunctive rifampicin reduces bacteriological (microbiologically confirmed) failure/recurrence or death through 12 weeks from randomisation. Secondary objectives included evaluating the impact of rifampicin on all-cause mortality, clinically defined failure/recurrence or death, toxicity, resistance emergence, and duration of bacteraemia; and assessing the cost-effectiveness of rifampicin. DESIGN: Parallel-group, randomised (1 : 1), blinded, placebo-controlled multicentre trial. SETTING: UK NHS trust hospitals. PARTICIPANTS: Adult inpatients (≥ 18 years) with meticillin-resistant or susceptible S. aureus grown from one or more blood cultures, who had received < 96 hours of antibiotic therapy for the current infection, and without contraindications to rifampicin. INTERVENTIONS: Adjunctive rifampicin (600-900 mg/day, oral or intravenous) or placebo for 14 days in addition to standard antibiotic therapy. Investigators and patients were blinded to trial treatment. Follow-up was for 12 weeks (assessments at 3, 7, 10 and 14 days, weekly until discharge and final assessment at 12 weeks post randomisation). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was all-cause bacteriological (microbiologically confirmed) failure/recurrence or death through 12 weeks from randomisation. RESULTS: Between December 2012 and October 2016, 758 eligible participants from 29 UK hospitals were randomised: 370 to rifampicin and 388 to placebo. The median age was 65 years [interquartile range (IQR) 50-76 years]. A total of 485 (64.0%) infections were community acquired and 132 (17.4%) were nosocomial; 47 (6.2%) were caused by meticillin-resistant S. aureus. A total of 301 (39.7%) participants had an initial deep infection focus. Standard antibiotics were given for a median of 29 days (IQR 18-45 days) and 619 (81.7%) participants received flucloxacillin. By 12 weeks, 62 out of 370 (16.8%) patients taking rifampicin versus 71 out of 388 (18.3%) participants taking the placebo experienced bacteriological (microbiologically confirmed) failure/recurrence or died [absolute risk difference -1.4%, 95% confidence interval (CI) -7.0% to 4.3%; hazard ratio 0.96, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.35; p = 0.81]. There were 4 (1.1%) and 5 (1.3%) bacteriological failures (p = 0.82) in the rifampicin and placebo groups, respectively. There were 3 (0.8%) versus 16 (4.1%) bacteriological recurrences (p = 0.01), and 55 (14.9%) versus 50 (12.9%) deaths without bacteriological failure/recurrence (p = 0.30) in the rifampicin and placebo groups, respectively. Over 12 weeks, there was no evidence of differences in clinically defined failure/recurrence/death (p = 0.84), all-cause mortality (p = 0.60), serious (p = 0.17) or grade 3/4 (p = 0.36) adverse events (AEs). However, 63 (17.0%) participants in the rifampicin group versus 39 (10.1%) participants in the placebo group experienced antibiotic or trial drug-modifying AEs (p = 0.004), and 24 (6.5%) participants in the rifampicin group versus 6 (1.5%) participants in the placebo group experienced drug-interactions (p = 0.0005). Evaluation of the costs and health-related quality-of-life impacts revealed that an episode of S. aureus bacteraemia costs an average of £12,197 over 12 weeks. Rifampicin was estimated to save 10% of episode costs (p = 0.14). After adjustment, the effect of rifampicin on total quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) was positive (0.004 QALYs), but not statistically significant (standard error 0.004 QALYs). CONCLUSIONS: Adjunctive rifampicin provided no overall benefit over standard antibiotic therapy in adults with S. aureus bacteraemia. FUTURE WORK: Given the substantial mortality, other antibiotic combinations or improved source management should be investigated. TRIAL REGISTRATIONS: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN37666216, EudraCT 2012-000344-10 and Clinical Trials Authorisation 00316/0243/001. FUNDING: This project was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Health Technology Assessment programme and will be published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 22, No. 59. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.

Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection: a pooled analysis of five prospective, observational studies.

OBJECTIVES: Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia is a common, often fatal infection. Our aim was to describe how its clinical presentation varies between populations and to identify common determinants of outcome. METHODS: We conducted a pooled analysis on 3395 consecutive adult patients with S. aureus bacteraemia. Patients were enrolled between 2006 and 2011 in five prospective studies in 20 tertiary care centres in Germany, Spain, United Kingdom, and United States. RESULTS: The median age of participants was 64 years (interquartile range 50-75 years) and 63.8% were male. 25.4% of infections were associated with diabetes mellitus, 40.7% were nosocomial, 20.6% were caused by methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), although these proportions varied significantly across studies. Intravenous catheters were the commonest identified infective focus (27.7%); 8.3% had endocarditis. Crude 14 and 90-day mortality was 14.6% and 29.2%, respectively. Age, MRSA bacteraemia, nosocomial acquisition, endocarditis, and pneumonia were independently associated with death, but a strong association was with an unidentified infective focus (adjusted hazard ratio for 90-day mortality 2.92; 95% confidence interval 2.33 to 3.67, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: The baseline demographic and clinical features of S. aureus bacteraemia vary significantly between populations. Mortality could be reduced by assiduous MRSA control and early identification of the infective focus.

Adjunctive rifampicin to reduce early mortality from Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia (ARREST): study protocol for a randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia is a common and serious infection, with an associated mortality of ~25%. Once in the blood, S. aureus can disseminate to infect almost any organ, but bones, joints and heart valves are most frequently affected. Despite the infection's severity, the evidence guiding optimal antibiotic therapy is weak: fewer than 1,500 patients have been included in 16 randomised controlled trials investigating S. aureus bacteraemia treatment. It is uncertain which antibiotics are most effective, their route of administration and duration, and whether antibiotic combinations are better than single agents. We hypothesise that adjunctive rifampicin, given in combination with a standard first-line antibiotic, will enhance killing of S. aureus early in the treatment course, sterilise infected foci and blood faster, and thereby reduce the risk of dissemination, metastatic infection and death. Our aim is to determine whether adjunctive rifampicin reduces all-cause mortality within 14 days and bacteriological failure or death within 12 weeks from randomisation. METHODS: We will perform a parallel group, randomised (1:1), blinded, placebo-controlled trial in NHS hospitals across the UK. Adults (≥ 18 years) with S. aureus (meticillin-susceptible or resistant) grown from at least one blood culture who have received ≤ 96 h of active antibiotic therapy for the current infection and do not have contraindications to the use of rifampicin will be eligible for inclusion. Participants will be randomised to adjunctive rifampicin (600-900 mg/day; orally or intravenously) or placebo for the first 14 days of therapy in combination with standard single-agent antibiotic therapy. The co-primary outcome measures will be all-cause mortality up to 14 days from randomisation and bacteriological failure/death (all-cause) up to 12 weeks from randomisation. 940 patients will be recruited, providing >80% power to detect 45% and 30% reductions in the two co-primary endpoints of death by 14 days and bacteriological failure/death by 12 weeks respectively. DISCUSSION: This pragmatic trial addresses the long-standing hypothesis that adjunctive rifampicin improves outcome from S. aureus bacteraemia through enhanced early bacterial killing. If proven correct, it will provide a paradigm through which further improvements in outcome from S. aureus bacteraemia can be explored.

Clinical management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia.

Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia is one of the most common serious bacterial infections worldwide. In the UK alone, around 12,500 cases each year are reported, with an associated mortality of about 30%, yet the evidence guiding optimum management is poor. To date, fewer than 1500 patients with S aureus bacteraemia have been recruited to 16 controlled trials of antimicrobial therapy. Consequently, clinical practice is driven by the results of observational studies and anecdote. Here, we propose and review ten unanswered clinical questions commonly posed by those managing S aureus bacteraemia. Our findings define the major areas of uncertainty in the management of S aureus bacteraemia and highlight just two key principles. First, all infective foci must be identified and removed as soon as possible. Second, long-term antimicrobial therapy is required for those with persistent bacteraemia or a deep, irremovable focus. Beyond this, the best drugs, dose, mode of delivery, and duration of therapy are uncertain, a situation compounded by emerging S aureus strains that are resistant to old and new antibiotics. We discuss the consequences on clinical practice, and how these findings define the agenda for future clinical research.