Occupational Therapy Practice Guidelines for Autistic People Across the Lifespan.

IMPORTANCE: Occupational therapy practitioners need evidence to support interventions that promote subjective well-being among autistic people and their families through optimal engagement and participation in occupations. OBJECTIVE: These Practice Guidelines are informed by systematic reviews to expand knowledge of interventions that promote access, inclusion, engagement, and optimal participation in occupations that are meaningful to autistic people. Our intent was to foster occupational therapy practitioners' clinical decision-making and reasoning when working with autistic people and their care partners. METHOD: These Practice Guidelines were developed on the basis of four systematic reviews, supporting evidence and literature, along with continued revisions and integration through an iterative and collaborative process. RESULTS: A total of 98 articles were included in the systematic reviews, which are the foundation for practice recommendations in these guidelines. Forty-eight of the systematic review articles were used to inform the clinical recommendations included in these Practice Guidelines. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: Strong to moderate evidence indicates the need for multidisciplinary, goal-oriented interventions to support autistic people in different contexts. Although there is only emerging evidence in the inclusion of autistic people's strengths, interests, and perspectives to guide occupational therapy interventions, such practices can enhance the delivery of neurodiversity-affirming and trauma-informed practices. In addition, evidence is needed to support participation in activities of daily living (ADLs) for autistic youths. We recommend the use of strengths-based language to describe autistic people and the use of environmental adaptations, care partner education, and coaching to enhance occupational therapy service delivery. Plain-Language Summary: The literature is sparse regarding neurodiversity-affirming and trauma-informed practices for autistic youths, as well as for participation in activities of daily living (ADLs). These Practice Guidelines provide new information on positive mental health development; self-determination; ADLs, instrumental ADLs, play, and leisure occupations for children, adolescents, and adults; person-centered planning for adolescents and adults; and rest and sleep. Information on health management is also provided. Positionality Statement: This article uses the identity-first language autistic people. This nonableist language describes their strengths and abilities and is a conscious decision. This language is favored by autistic communities and self-advocates and has been adopted by health care professionals and researchers (Bottema-Beutel et al., 2021; Kenny et al., 2016). However, we respect the use of person-first language and have made a conscious decision to include research articles that have used this language.

Interventions to Support Participation in Sleep for Autistic Children and Adolescents (2013-2021).

Systematic Review Briefs provide a summary of the findings from systematic reviews developed in conjunction with the American Occupational Therapy Association's Evidence-Based Practice Program. Each systematic review brief summarizes the evidence on a theme related to a systematic review topic. This systematic review brief presents findings from the systematic review on interventions to support participation in sleep for autistic1 children and adolescents (birth to 18 yr).

Interventions to Support Participation in Education for Autistic Students (2013-2021).

Systematic Review Briefs provide a summary of the findings from systematic reviews developed in conjunction with the American Occupational Therapy Association's Evidence-Based Practice Program. Each systematic review brief summarizes the evidence on a theme related to a systematic review topic. This systematic review brief presents findings from the systematic review on interventions to support autistic1 children and youth (up to 18 yr old) and focuses on participation in education settings.

Interventions to Support Participation in Basic and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living for Autistic Children and Adolescents (2013-2021).

Systematic Review Briefs provide a summary of the findings from systematic reviews developed in conjunction with the American Occupational Therapy Association's Evidence-Based Practice Program. Each systematic review brief summarizes the evidence on a theme related to a systematic review topic. This systematic review brief presents findings from the systematic review on interventions to support participation in basic and instrumental activities of daily living by autistic1 children and adolescents (birth to 18 yr).

Clinic-Based Interventions to Support Social Participation for Autistic Children and Adolescents (2013-2021).

Systematic review briefs provide a summary of the findings from systematic reviews developed in conjunction with the American Occupational Therapy Association's Evidence-Based Practice Program. Each systematic review brief summarizes the evidence on a theme related to a systematic review topic. This systematic review brief presents findings from clinic-based studies to support social participation for autistic1 children and adolescents (birth to 18 yr).

Interventions to Support Social Participation for Autistic Children and Adolescents in Schools (2013-2021).

Systematic review briefs provide a summary of the findings from systematic reviews developed in conjunction with the American Occupational Therapy Association's Evidence-Based Practice Program. Each systematic review brief summarizes the evidence on a theme related to a systematic review topic. This systematic review brief presents findings to support social participation in school contexts for autistic1 children and adolescents (birth to 18 yr).

Interventions to Support Participation in Play for Autistic Children and Youth (Dates of Review: 2013-2021).

Systematic Review Briefs provide a summary of the findings from systematic reviews developed in conjunction with the American Occupational Therapy Association's Evidence-Based Practice Program. Each systematic review brief summarizes the evidence on a theme related to a systematic review topic. This systematic review brief presents findings to support participation in play for autistic1 children and adolescents (birth to 18 yr).

Interventions to Support Social Participation for Autistic Children and Adolescents in Homes and Communities (2013-2021).

Systematic review briefs provide a summary of the findings from systematic reviews developed in conjunction with the American Occupational Therapy Association's Evidence-Based Practice Program. Each systematic review brief summarizes the evidence on a theme related to a systematic review topic. This systematic review brief presents findings to support social participation for autistic1 children and adolescents (birth to 18 yr) in homes and communities.

Sensory Processing in the General Population: Adaptability, Resiliency, and Challenging Behavior.

Sensory processing is a personal trait that can contribute to challenging behavior. Protective factors, such as resiliency, can support children in managing their behavior, yet little research has addressed the contribution of sensory processing to protective factors. Therefore, in this cross-sectional study we aimed to determine the contribution of sensory processing (using the Sensory Profile-2) to challenging behavior and protective factors (using the Behavior Assessment System for Children, 2nd ed., Parent Rating Scales) in a sample of 51 children ages 6-11 yr from the general U.S. POPULATION: The results indicated that sensory avoiding predicts externalizing behaviors, depression, resiliency, and adaptability. In addition, sensory seeking is related to depression and resiliency, whereas sensory sensitivity is related to externalizing behaviors. Implications for occupational therapy research and practice are discussed.

Sensory Processing Patterns in Autism, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and Typical Development.

AIMS: The purpose of this study was to examine sensory processing in children ages 3-14 years with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and typical development (TD) using the Sensory Profile 2nd Edition (Dunn, 2014). METHODS: Participants included 239 children (ASD = 77; ADHD = 78; TD = 84) matched on age and gender. Multivariate analysis of covariance was used to compare the extent to which the three grsoups differed on sensory processing patterns (i.e., sensitivity, avoiding, registration, seeking) and sensory systems (i.e., auditory, visual, touch, movement, body position, oral, conduct, attention, social). We also examined the effect of chronological age. RESULTS: Children with ASD and ADHD did not differ in sensory processing patterns which were elevated as compared to a TD group. Children with ASD showed the highest rate of oral processing differences, followed by ADHD and TD. Children with ADHD had higher visual processing scores than children with ASD and TD. Older children had lower scores for seeking, auditory, visual, movement, touch, and conduct than younger children, regardless of diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that sensory features may be an area of overlap of behaviors in ASD and ADHD, which may have implications for intervention approaches for children with these conditions.

Occupational Therapy Interventions for Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Evidence Connection articles provide a clinical application of systematic reviews developed in conjunction with the American Occupational Therapy Association's (AOTA's) Evidence-Based Practice Project. In this Evidence Connection article, we describe a case report of an adolescent with autism spectrum disorder. The occupational therapy assessment and treatment processes for school, home, community, and transition settings are described. Findings from the systematic reviews on this topic were published in the September/October 2015 issue of the American Journal of Occupational Therapy and in AOTA's Occupational Therapy Practice Guidelines for Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorder. Each article in this series summarizes the evidence from the published reviews on a given topic and presents an application of the evidence to a related clinical case. Evidence Connection articles illustrate how the research evidence from the reviews can be used to inform and guide clinical decision making.

Sensory Pattern Contributions to Developmental Performance in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Sensory processing differences in preschool-age children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affect their engagement in everyday activities, thereby influencing opportunities to practice and develop skills such as social communication and adaptive behavior. The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which specific sensory processing patterns relate to aspects of development (i.e., adaptive behavior, expressive and receptive language, fine and gross motor skills, social behavior) in a sample of preschool-age children with ASD (N=400). A retrospective chart review was used to gather clinical data. Results suggest that sensory processing patterns differentially affect children's developmental skills and adaptive behavior. Certain sensory processing patterns predicted children's development of language, motor, and adaptive skills. These findings have clear implications for occupational therapy practice with young children with ASD. Practitioners should consider how sensory processing in ASD both supports and limits children's ability to engage in social communication and learning opportunities.

Role of occupational therapy in promoting self-determination through consumer-directed supports.

Consumer-directed services (CDS) are a type of support system designed to increase the quality of life and self-determination of clients, such as adults with developmental disabilities. Occupational therapists can play an important role in facilitating people's involvement in CDS supports. This paper describes CDS, evidence that supports their use, and ways that occupational therapists use their training in person-centered practice to enhance CDS supports and self-determination. A case study is used to illustrate the application.

Short report: Do parents use asynchronous materials in a hybrid coaching via telehealth intervention?

LAY ABSTRACT: Using telehealth to provide services to families and children with autism has grown since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. Yet, we still know less about telehealth models that use both virtual sessions and online materials to support families. Research suggests it is important to make sure an intervention matches the characteristics of a child with autism, but fewer studies have examined the importance of matching an intervention to parent characteristics. In this study, we looked at parent characteristics (25 parents included in the study) before a parent coaching telehealth intervention for potty training in autism. We specifically looked at how parent competence (i.e. how confident and effective one feels with parenting) levels before the intervention influenced the usage of online education materials (i.e. podcasts/tip sheets). Results suggested that parents with lower competence used the online materials more often than parents with higher competence, and often made greater gains in parent competence during the intervention. Both parents with lower and higher competence found the intervention acceptable. Future research should study additional parent characteristics in a larger sample to better understand how to tailor interventions to meet both parent and child needs.

Race and Ethnicity Reporting in Occupational Therapy Research Among Autistic Youth.

Historically marginalized racial and ethnic groups are underrepresented in autism research broadly; however, patterns of inclusion in occupational therapy research are unknown.In this secondary data analysis, we examined race and ethnicity reporting across articles included in a systematic review of evidence related to occupational therapy practice with autistic individuals <18 years (2013-2021).Two team members reached >90% interrater coding agreement in race and ethnicity reporting across articles in ADLs/IADLs, education/work, play, sleep, and social participation in clinics, homes/communities, and schools.Intervention outcomes of ADL/IADLs (66.7%) and play (66.7%) had low rates of reporting, while social participation in schools (100%) and education/work (100%) had higher rates of reporting. Sample diversity was greatest among research in schools and most limited in clinic-based settings.Systemic racism that limits individuals' participation in occupational therapy research perpetuates racial and ethnic health inequities among autistic children and adolescents.

Who is included in occupational therapy research among autistic youth?In research that guides occupational therapy practice with autistic youth, we need an understanding of the participants that were included in the research. Historically marginalized racial and ethnic groups are typically not included in the research, so we examined articles that informed occupational therapy practice for autistic youth. We found that different areas of intervention (e.g., play, education/work) had different rates of reporting. The most diverse samples were included in schools and were most limited in clinic-based settings. This is important because systemic racism can influence occupational therapy research and practice.

A Telehealth Delivered Toilet Training Intervention for Children with Autism.

BACKGROUND: Independence in toileting is a vital skill, yet toilet-training interventions for children with autism are limited. OBJECTIVES: We investigated the acceptability and preliminary efficacy of a hybrid telehealth intervention that used synchronous individualized coaching sessions and asynchronous online educational materials to support parents in toilet training their children with autism. METHOD: Participants included 34 families of children with autism ages 2 to 8 years. Measures were administered at pre- and postintervention (10-12 weeks) and included the Toileting Behavior Questionnaire, Goal Attainment Scaling, and Canadian Occupational Performance Measure. RESULTS: Twenty-five families completed all intervention procedures. Parents found the intervention highly acceptable and reported significant improvements in child toileting behaviors; however, families accessed the asynchronous intervention materials at a low rate. CONCLUSION: A parent coaching model delivered through telehealth may be a promising method to increase toileting independence among families of young children with autism.

Prevalence Models to Support Participation: Sensory Patterns as a Feature of All Children's Humanity.

Purpose: Research about children tends to consider differences from expected patterns problematic, and associates differences with disabilities [e.g., Autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]. When we focus on disabilities and consider differences automatically problematic, we miss the natural variability in the general population. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF 11) acknowledges that the experience of disability results from interactions between "environmental" and "personal" factors which determine the person's capacity to participate. The purpose of this study was to examine sensory patterns across a national sample of children in the general population and samples of children with disabilities to investigate the extent to which differences in sensory processing are representative of natural variability rather than automatically problematic or part of a disability. Materials and Methods: We employed descriptive statistics and chi-square tests to examine sensory processing patterns in children in the general population and autistic children and children with ADHD. We used standardization and validity data from the Sensory Profile 2 to conduct analyses. Results: Consistent sensory patterns exist across all groups. Children in all groups had different rates of certain patterns. Conclusion: Since children in all groups have certain sensory patterns, we cannot associate differences with problematic behaviors. Children participating successfully with all sensory patterns might provide insights for universal design that supports participation of all children.

Sensory Subtypes in Preschool Aged Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Given the heterogeneity of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), research has investigated how sensory features elucidate subtypes that enhance our understanding of etiology and tailored treatment approaches. Previous studies, however, have not integrated core developmental behaviors with sensory features in investigations of subtypes in ASD. Therefore, we used latent profile analysis to examine subtypes in a preschool aged sample considering sensory processing patterns in combination with social-communication skill, motor performance, and adaptive behavior. Results showed four subtypes that differed by degree and quality of sensory features, age and differential presentation of developmental skills. Findings partially align with previous literature on sensory subtypes and extends our understanding of how sensory processing aligns with other developmental domains in young children with ASD.

Sensory processing in children with and without autism: a comparative study using the short sensory profile.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to investigate differences in sensory processing among age-matched children between ages 3 and 6 years with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and those who are typically developing. METHOD: Reported sensory processing abilities of 281 children with ASD were compared to age-matched peers who were typically developing, using the Short Sensory Profile (SSP). RESULTS: Ninety-five percent of the sample of children with ASD demonstrated some degree of sensory processing dysfunction on the SSP Total Score, with the greatest differences reported on the Underresponsive/ Seeks Sensation, Auditory Filtering, and Tactile Sensitivity sections. The ASD group also performed significantly differently (p < .001) on 92% of the items, total score, and all sections of the SSP. CONCLUSION: These findings, considered with similar published studies, begin to confirm the prevalence and types of sensory processing impairments in autism. Further research is needed to more clearly define patterns of sensory processing in people with ASD.

A Pilot Study on Professional Documentation: Do We Write From a Strengths Perspective?

PURPOSE: There is growing evidence supporting the use of strengths-based practices when serving families. The purpose of this study was to examine the use of strengths-based approaches in the context of written professional documentation. We specifically explored whether or not interdisciplinary clinicians in one university-based medical center clinic write from a strengths perspective (e.g., writing focuses on abilities rather than on deficits) when documenting child behavior in autism diagnostic clinics. METHOD: We gathered narrative-based writing samples (a total of 299 phrases) from 20 patient reports. Using a coding system developed by the research team (intraclass correlation coefficient = .801 on final definitions and coding system), we analyzed the extent to which interdisciplinary clinicians included strengths-based language (e.g., language that emphasizes a person's strengths rather than limitations) in their written documentation. An independent researcher coded a random sample (20% of entire sample) of the data to document reliability of the coded data (97% interrater agreement). RESULTS: Our findings indicated that clinicians in our study used deficit-based language significantly more than neutral and strengths-based language in written documentation. CONCLUSION: This preliminary evidence suggests a need to reflect upon our own understanding of strengths-based practices and the way professionals write about children in clinical documentation.