Impact of the nanoparticle-protein corona on colloidal stability and protein structure.

In biological fluids, proteins may associate with nanoparticles (NPs), leading to the formation of a so-called "protein corona" largely defining the biological identity of the particle. Here, we present a novel approach to assess apparent binding affinities for the adsorption/desorption of proteins to silver NPs based on the impact of the corona formation on the agglomeration kinetics of the colloid. Affinities derived from circular dichroism measurements complement these results, simultaneously elucidating structural changes in the adsorbed protein. Employing human serum albumin as a model, apparent affinities in the nanomolar regime resulted from both approaches. Collectively, our findings now allow discrimination between the formation of protein mono- and multilayers on NP surfaces.

Deliquescence and efflorescence behavior of ternary inorganic/organic/water aerosol particles.

The deliquescence behavior of ternary inorganic (ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate)/organic (glutaric acid and malonic acid)/water aerosol particles has been investigated at 293 K using a novel surface aerosol microscopy (SAM) technique. The results obtained for the deliquescence relative humidities (DRH) for particles of variable inorganic/organic contents show a eutectic behavior with the mixed particles showing deliquescence at lower DRH compared to the pure inorganic and organic components, respectively. This behavior has been quantitatively modeled using the extended aerosol inorganics (E-AIM) thermodynamic model of Clegg et al. in combination with the UNIFAC group activity approach to account for organic molecular solutes. In addition, we have investigated the crystallization behavior of supersatured and formerly deliquesced ternary solution droplets using space resolved Raman spectroscopy. It is found that such droplets produce solid particles in which the inorganic and organic phases show some spatial separation with the organic component being predominantly found at the outer part of the particle. Independent measurements of the contact angles of such ternary droplets reveal that their angles are within experimental error identical to those of the purely organic/water solutions.

Spatial separation of individual substances in effloresced crystals of ternary ammonium sulphate/dicarboxylic acid/water aerosols.

This work examines the crystals resulting from the efflorescence of internally mixed aqueous aerosols comprising ammonium sulphate and different dicarboxylic acids. Most studies on the deliquescence of aerosols use previously effloresced aerosols in their experiments. However, during efflorescence a highly supersaturated solution crystallises in a kinetically controlled way unlike the case of thermodynamically controlled crystallisation. Herein the distribution of individual substances within the effloresced crystals is investigated using Raman scanning experiments. The data presented show an intriguingly complex behaviour of these ternary and quarternary aerosols. A spatial separation of substances in the crystals resulting from the efflorescence of previously internally mixed ternary salt/dicarboxylic acid/water aerosol droplets is demonstrated and mechanistic aspects are discussed.

The influence of surface composition of nanoparticles on their interactions with serum albumin.

Interactions between differently functionalised silver and gold nanoparticles (NPs) as well as polystyrene nanoparticles with bovine serum albumin (BSA) are studied using circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. It is found that the addition of NPs to the protein solution destroys part of the helical secondary structure of the protein as a result of surface adsorption. From the loss of free protein and hence the extent of their structural change adsorption equilibrium constants are derived. The results reveal that citrate-coated gold and silver NPs exhibit much stronger interactions with BSA than polymeric or polymer-coated metallic NPs. It is therefore concluded that for the particles considered, the influence of surface composition on the interaction behaviour dominates that of the core.

Validation of weak biological effects by round robin experiments: cytotoxicity/biocompatibility of SiO2 and polymer nanoparticles in HepG2 cells.

All over the world, different types of nanomaterials with a diversified spectrum of applications are designed and developed, especially in the field of nanomedicine. The great variety of nanoparticles (NPs), in vitro test systems and cell lines led to a vast amount of publications with conflicting data. To identify the decisive principles of these variabilities, we conducted an intercomparison study of collaborating laboratories within the German DFG Priority Program SPP1313, using well-defined experimental parameters and well-characterized NPs. The participants analyzed the in vitro biocompatibility of silica and polymer NPs on human hepatoma HepG2 cells. Nanoparticle mediated effects on cell metabolism, internalization, and inflammation were measured. All laboratories showed that both nanoparticle formulations were internalized and had a low cytotoxicity profile. Interestingly, small variations in nanoparticle preparation, cell handling and the type of culture slide influenced the nanoparticle stability and the outcomes of cell assays. The round robin test demonstrated the importance of the use of clearly defined and characterized NPs and parameters for reproducible results across laboratories. Comparative analyses of in vitro screening methods performed in multiple laboratories are absolutely essential to establish robust standard operation procedure as a prerequisite for sound hazard assessment of nanomaterials.

Quantitative Replacement of Citrate by Phosphane on Silver Nanoparticle Surfaces Monitored by Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS).

Chemical approaches to metal NP synthesis commonly use capping agents to achieve a desired NP size and shape. Frequently, such NPs require chemically different surface ligands after synthesis to generate desired NP properties (e.g., charge or hydrophilicity) and to increase their long term colloidal stability. Here, we prepared SERS active citrate-stabilized silver NPs (d = 38±4 nm), purified them from remaining reactants by ultracentrifugation and redispersion, and immersed them into solutions containing different concentrations of Tris(sodium-m-sulfonatophenyl)phosphine (TPPTS), which is often used in such ligand replacement approaches to increase colloidal stability. After equilibration, SERS spectra were acquired, elucidating the concentration dependence of the ligand replacement reaction. SERS data were complemented by concentration dependent size measurements and relations between ligand exchange and colloidal stability are discussed.

Protein corona - from molecular adsorption to physiological complexity.

In biological environments, nanoparticles are enshrouded by a layer of biomolecules, predominantly proteins, mediating its subsequent interactions with cells. Detecting this protein corona, understanding its formation with regards to nanoparticle (NP) and protein properties, and elucidating its biological implications were central aims of bio-related nano-research throughout the past years. Here, we discuss the mechanistic parameters that are involved in the protein corona formation and the consequences of this corona formation for both, the particle, and the protein. We review consequences of corona formation for colloidal stability and discuss the role of functional groups and NP surface functionalities in shaping NP-protein interactions. We also elaborate the recent advances demonstrating the strong involvement of Coulomb-type interactions between NPs and charged patches on the protein surface. Moreover, we discuss novel aspects related to the complexity of the protein corona forming under physiological conditions in full serum. Specifically, we address the relation between particle size and corona composition and the latest findings that help to shed light on temporal evolution of the full serum corona for the first time. Finally, we discuss the most recent advances regarding the molecular-scale mechanistic role of the protein corona in cellular uptake of NPs.

Impact of protein modification on the protein corona on nanoparticles and nanoparticle-cell interactions.

Recent studies have firmly established that cellular uptake of nanoparticles is strongly affected by the presence and the physicochemical properties of a protein adsorption layer around these nanoparticles. Here, we have modified human serum albumin (HSA), a serum protein often used in model studies of protein adsorption onto nanoparticles, to alter its surface charge distribution and investigated the consequences for protein corona formation around small (radius ∼5 nm), dihydrolipoic acid-coated quantum dots (DHLA-QDs) by using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. HSA modified by succinic anhydride (HSAsuc) to generate additional carboxyl groups on the protein surface showed a 3-fold decreased binding affinity toward the nanoparticles. A 1000-fold enhanced affinity was observed for HSA modified by ethylenediamine (HSAam) to increase the number of amino functions on the protein surface. Remarkably, HSAsuc formed a much thicker protein adsorption layer (8.1 nm) than native HSA (3.3 nm), indicating that it binds in a distinctly different orientation on the nanoparticle, whereas the HSAam corona (4.6 nm) is only slightly thicker. Notably, protein binding to DHLA-QDs was found to be entirely reversible, independent of the modification. We have also measured the extent and kinetics of internalization of these nanoparticles without and with adsorbed native and modified HSA by HeLa cells. Pronounced variations were observed, indicating that even small physicochemical changes of the protein corona may affect biological responses.

Effects of the physicochemical properties of titanium dioxide nanoparticles, commonly used as sun protection agents, on microvascular endothelial cells.

Until now, the potential effects of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles on endothelial cells are not well understood, despite their already wide usage. Therefore, the present work characterizes six TiO2 nanoparticle samples in the size range of 19 × 17 to 87 × 13 nm, which are commonly present in sun protection agents with respect to their physicochemical properties (size, shape, ζ-potential, agglomeration, sedimentation, surface coating, and surface area), their interactions with serum proteins and biological impact on human microvascular endothelial cells (relative cellular dehydrogenase activity, adenosine triphosphate content, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 release). We observed no association of nanoparticle morphology with the agglomeration and sedimentation behavior and no variations of the ζ-potential (-14 to -19 mV) in dependence on the surface coating. In general, the impact on endothelial cells was low and only detectable at concentrations of 100 µg/ml. Particles containing a rutile core and having rod-like shape had a stronger effect on cell metabolism than those with anatase core and elliptical shape (relative cellular dehydrogenase activity after 72 h: 60 vs. 90 %). Besides the morphology, the nanoparticle shell constitution was found to influence the metabolic activity of the cells. Upon cellular uptake, the nanoparticles were localized perinuclearly. Considering that in the in vivo situation endothelial cells would come in contact with considerably lower nanoparticle amounts than the lowest-observable adverse effects level (100 µg/ml), TiO2 nanoparticles can be considered as rather harmless to humans under the investigated conditions.

PVP-coated, negatively charged silver nanoparticles: A multi-center study of their physicochemical characteristics, cell culture and in vivo experiments.

PVP-capped silver nanoparticles with a diameter of the metallic core of 70 nm, a hydrodynamic diameter of 120 nm and a zeta potential of -20 mV were prepared and investigated with regard to their biological activity. This review summarizes the physicochemical properties (dissolution, protein adsorption, dispersability) of these nanoparticles and the cellular consequences of the exposure of a broad range of biological test systems to this defined type of silver nanoparticles. Silver nanoparticles dissolve in water in the presence of oxygen. In addition, in biological media (i.e., in the presence of proteins) the surface of silver nanoparticles is rapidly coated by a protein corona that influences their physicochemical and biological properties including cellular uptake. Silver nanoparticles are taken up by cell-type specific endocytosis pathways as demonstrated for hMSC, primary T-cells, primary monocytes, and astrocytes. A visualization of particles inside cells is possible by X-ray microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and combined FIB/SEM analysis. By staining organelles, their localization inside the cell can be additionally determined. While primary brain astrocytes are shown to be fairly tolerant toward silver nanoparticles, silver nanoparticles induce the formation of DNA double-strand-breaks (DSB) and lead to chromosomal aberrations and sister-chromatid exchanges in Chinese hamster fibroblast cell lines (CHO9, K1, V79B). An exposure of rats to silver nanoparticles in vivo induced a moderate pulmonary toxicity, however, only at rather high concentrations. The same was found in precision-cut lung slices of rats in which silver nanoparticles remained mainly at the tissue surface. In a human 3D triple-cell culture model consisting of three cell types (alveolar epithelial cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells), adverse effects were also only found at high silver concentrations. The silver ions that are released from silver nanoparticles may be harmful to skin with disrupted barrier (e.g., wounds) and induce oxidative stress in skin cells (HaCaT). In conclusion, the data obtained on the effects of this well-defined type of silver nanoparticles on various biological systems clearly demonstrate that cell-type specific properties as well as experimental conditions determine the biocompatibility of and the cellular responses to an exposure with silver nanoparticles.

Interactions of nanoparticles with proteins: determination of equilibrium constants.

The behavior of nanoparticles towards proteins is an important aspect across wide areas of nanotoxicology and nanomedicine. In this chapter, we describe a procedure to study the adsorption of proteins onto nanoparticle surfaces. Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy is utilized to quantify the amount of free protein in a solution, and the experimental information is evaluated to derive equilibrium constants for the protein adsorption/desorption equilibrium. These equilibrium constants are comparable parameters in describing the interactions between proteins and nanoparticles.

New views on cellular uptake and trafficking of manufactured nanoparticles.

Nanoparticles (NPs) are of similar size to typical cellular components and proteins, and can efficiently intrude living cells. A detailed understanding of the involved processes at the molecular level is important for developing NPs designed for selective uptake by specific cells, for example, for targeted drug delivery. In addition, this knowledge can greatly assist in the engineering of NPs that should not penetrate cells so as to avoid adverse health effects. In recent years, a wide variety of experiments have been performed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying cellular NP uptake. Here, we review some select recent studies, which are often based on fluorescence microscopy and sophisticated strategies for specific labelling of key cellular components. We address the role of the protein corona forming around NPs in biological environments, and describe recent work revealing active endocytosis mechanisms and pathways involved in their cellular uptake. Passive uptake is also discussed. The current state of knowledge is summarized, and we point to issues that still need to be addressed to further advance our understanding of cellular NP uptake.

Toward a molecular understanding of nanoparticle-protein interactions.

Wherever nanoparticles (NPs) come in contact with a living organism, physical and chemical interactions take place between the surfaces of the NPs and biomatter, in particular proteins. When NP are exposed to biological fluids, an adsorption layer of proteins, a "protein corona" forms around the NPs. Consequently, living systems interact with the protein-coated NP rather than with a bare NP. To anticipate biological responses to NPs, we thus require comprehensive knowledge of the interactions at the bio-nano interface. In recent years, a wide variety of biophysical techniques have been employed to elucidate mechanistic aspects of NP-protein interactions. In this brief review, we present the latest findings regarding the composition of the protein corona as it forms on NPs in the blood stream. We also discuss molecular aspects of this adsorption layer and its time evolution. The current state of knowledge is summarized, and issues that still need to be addressed to further advance our understanding of NP-protein interactions are identified.

Nanoparticle size is a critical physicochemical determinant of the human blood plasma corona: a comprehensive quantitative proteomic analysis.

In biological fluids, proteins associate with nanoparticles, leading to a protein "corona" defining the biological identity of the particle. However, a comprehensive knowledge of particle-guided protein fingerprints and their dependence on nanomaterial properties is incomplete. We studied the long-lived ("hard") blood plasma derived corona on monodispersed amorphous silica nanoparticles differing in size (20, 30, and 100 nm). Employing label-free liquid chromatography mass spectrometry, one- and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, and immunoblotting the composition of the protein corona was analyzed not only qualitatively but also quantitatively. Detected proteins were bioinformatically classified according to their physicochemical and biological properties. Binding of the 125 identified proteins did not simply reflect their relative abundance in the plasma but revealed an enrichment of specific lipoproteins as well as proteins involved in coagulation and the complement pathway. In contrast, immunoglobulins and acute phase response proteins displayed a lower affinity for the particles. Protein decoration of the negatively charged particles did not correlate with protein size or charge, demonstrating that electrostatic effects alone are not the major driving force regulating the nanoparticle-protein interaction. Remarkably, even differences in particle size of only 10 nm significantly determined the nanoparticle corona, although no clear correlation with particle surface volume, protein size, or charge was evident. Particle size quantitatively influenced the particle's decoration with 37% of all identified proteins, including (patho)biologically relevant candidates. We demonstrate the complexity of the plasma corona and its still unresolved physicochemical regulation, which need to be considered in nanobioscience in the future.

In situ comparative measurements of the properties of aerosol droplets of different chemical composition.

Aerosol optical tweezers can be used to manipulate multiple aerosol particles simultaneously. When coupled with spontaneous and stimulated Raman scattering, the composition, size and phase partitioning of different chemical components within a liquid droplet can be investigated. In combination, these two techniques suggest the possibility of a new strategy for characterising the thermodynamic behaviour of aerosols and the kinetics of mass transfer between the gas and condensed phases. We demonstrate here that two droplets can be characterised simultaneously, examining specifically the variation in wet particle size with relative humidity, recording the changes in size with nanometre accuracy. In a further demonstration, we use the size of a sodium chloride droplet to determine the relative humidity of the gas phase, allowing the variation in hygroscopicity of a second aqueous glutaric acid/sodium chloride droplet to be studied. We suggest that such a comparative approach can provide new insights into aerosol dynamics.