On religious ambiguity: Childhood family religiosity and adult flourishing in a twin sample.

Ambiguity is an important notion in sociology, denoting situations where social actors and groups carry on without shared meaning. The current article applies this concept to the context of religiosity during people's upbringing, recognizing that multiple factors make family-level religion a complex experience. Indeed, though recent research portrays household religiosity in childhood as a sociocultural exposure with long-term implications for well-being, existing studies have yet to incorporate multiple inputs to consider the cohesiveness of that exposure. Using twin data from a national sample, we investigate whether consistency in recalled household religiosity is associated with mid-life flourishing. Multi-level linear regression models reveal that similarity in twin reports matter, above and beyond the actual level of religiosity individuals report and net of dis/similarity across other childhood recollections. We conclude that coherence in religious upbringing-whether religion was understood to be important or not-is a key ingredient for thriving later in life and then reflect more broadly on manifestations of sociocultural ambiguity in families and in larger social units.

Sin in the Digital Flesh? Religiosity and the Sexting Behavior of Women and Men in the United States.

Scholars have noted a rise in sexting behavior in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. Although the association between religion and sexual behavior has been widely studied, researchers have yet to consider whether sexting behavior might vary according to levels of religiosity. Building on prior research, this study uses national survey data to formally test whether several dimensions of religiosity (religious attendance, divine control, and religious/spiritual struggles) are associated with the sexting behavior of women (n = 619, Mage = 40.28, SD = 11.50) and men (n = 548, Mage = 40.04, SD = 11.51). Results suggest that the odds of sexting are lower among women who report higher levels of in-person religious attendance (not virtual attendance) and greater perceptions of divine control. Among women and men, the odds of sexting are higher among those who report more religious/spiritual struggles. This study is among the first to show how various dimensions of religiosity might influence sexting behavior in different ways for women and men during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is important for future research to replicate our findings and to consider whether other dimensions of religiosity might also contribute to the likelihood of sexting in an increasingly digital world.

Do Religious Struggles Mediate the Association Between Neighborhood Disorder and Health in the United States?

Over the past two decades, numerous studies have linked the subjective experience of neighborhood disorder (perceptions of crime, dilapidation and ambient strains) with poorer health. We test whether religious struggles (religious doubts and feeling abandoned or punished by God) mediate this association. Our counterfactual mediation analyses of data from the 2021 Crime, Health, and Politics Survey (CHAPS) (n = 1741) revealed consistent indirect effects of neighborhood disorder through religious struggles for anger, psychological distress, sleep disturbance, poorer self-rated health, and shorter subjective life expectancy. This study contributes to previous work by integrating the study of neighborhood context and religion.

Attachment to God, Contingent Self-Worth, and Mental Health Outcomes in U.S. Collegiate Athletes.

Scholars and practitioners have recently devoted increased attention to the psychological well-being of student-athletes. However, sparse research has examined the role of religion/spirituality in well-being in athletic populations. In a sample of U.S. collegiate athletes (N = 415), the present study assessed how the divine relationship, measured by attachment style to God, associates with depressive and anxiety symptoms in a sample of collegiate student-athletes, as well as the mediating role of contingent self-worth based on the approval of others in this process. Results show that secure attachment to God is associated with fewer mental illness symptoms, whereas avoidant and anxious attachment to God are associated with greater mental illness symptoms. Contingent self-worth based on others' approval partially mediates each of these associations. Implications for the religion and health literature and sport practitioners are discussed.

Trait Courage, Attachment to God, and Mental Well-Being Among U.S. Collegiate Athletes.

In recent decades, scholars and practitioners alike have devoted increased attention to the psychological well-being of student-athletes. However, to date, far less research has examined the role of virtues, religion, and spirituality in contributing to well-being in student-athlete populations. In this study, we attempt to address these gaps by (a) assessing the association between trait courage, an understudied virtue in the sporting realm, and mental well-being, and then (b) considering how student-athletes' attachment to God might moderate the association between trait courage and depressive symptoms. Drawing on a sample of 415 student-athletes from the USA, regression results illustrate that courage was not significantly associated with lower depressive symptoms among student-athletes. However, a secure attachment to God appeared to function as a compensatory resource for student-athletes lacking in courage. On the contrary, athletes with low trait courage but who reported greater avoidant attachment to God reported greater depressive symptoms. Taken together, a more positive relationship with God could help provide athletes with lower trait courage a way to find meaning and strength that helps them with emotion-regulation strategies to deal with the pressures within and beyond their sport. This study clearly shows that greater attention should be paid to the religious and spiritual development of student-athletes.

Do Religion and Spirituality Buffer the Effect of Childhood Trauma on Depressive Symptoms? Examination of a South Asian Cohort from the USA.

Asian Americans have been identified as a racial group that is disproportionately affected by childhood trauma. The goal of this study was  to assess if religion/spirituality moderate the effects of childhood trauma on adult depressive symptoms among a sample of South Asians in the USA. Our analysis drew from the study on stress, spirituality, and health (SSSH) questionnaire fielded in the Mediators of Atherosclerosis in South Asians Living in America (MASALA) study (n = 990) during 2016-2018. A series of regression models with multiplicative interaction terms were conducted. Emotional neglect, emotional abuse, and physical neglect were associated with higher depressive symptoms. Higher religious attendance and negative religious coping techniques were found to exacerbate this relationship. There were two findings conditional on gender. Among men, gratitude and positive religious coping also exacerbated the relationship between childhood trauma and depressive symptoms. Negative religious coping also exacerbated the association between childhood trauma and depressive symptoms for women. This is the first community-based study of US South Asians to consider the association between various forms of childhood trauma and depressive symptom outcomes. South Asians remain an understudied group in the religion and health literature, and this study sheds light on the important differences in the function and effectiveness of religion/spirituality for those faced with early life trauma.

Religion/Spirituality and Prevalent Hypertension among Ethnic Cohorts in the Study on Stress, Spirituality, and Health.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension is a significant public health issue, particularly for Blacks, Hispanics/Latinos, and South Asians who are at greater risk than whites. Religion and spirituality (R/S) have been shown to be protective, but this has been identified primarily in whites with limited R/S measures examined (i.e., religious service attendance). PURPOSE: To assess hypertension prevalence (HP) in four racial/ethnic groups while incorporating an array of R/S variables, including individual prayer, group prayer, nontheistic daily spiritual experiences, yoga, gratitude, positive religious coping, and negative religious coping. METHODS: Data were drawn from the Study on Stress, Spirituality, and Health, a consortium of ethnically diverse U.S. cohorts. The sample included 994 Black women, 838 Hispanic/Latino men and women, 879 South Asian men and women, and 3681 white women. Using a cross-sectional design, prevalence ratios for R/S and hypertension were reported for each cohort, in addition to pooled analyses. Given differences in R/S among men and women, all models were stratified by gender. RESULTS: Different patterns of associations were found between women and men. Among women: 1) religious attendance was associated with lower HP among Black and white women; 2) gratitude was linked to lower HP among Hispanic/Latino, South Asian, and white women; 3) individual prayer was associated with higher HP among Hispanic/Latino and white women; 4) yoga was associated with higher HP among South Asian women, and 5) negative religious coping was linked to higher HP among Black women. Among men: significant results were only found among Hispanic/Latino men. Religious attendance and individual prayer were associated with higher HP, while group prayer and negative religious coping were associated with lower HP. CONCLUSION: Religion/spirituality is a multifaceted construct that manifests differently by race/ethnicity and gender. Medical practitioners should avoid a one-size-fits-all approach to this topic when evaluating prevalent hypertension in diverse communities.

Hypertension is a serious public health issue that affects many Americans, though non-whites are at greater risk than whites. In this study, we examine Black, Hispanic/Latino, and South Asian samples, comparing their hypertension rates to whites. We ask whether one or more aspects of religion and spirituality (R/S) might be associated with prevalent hypertension (i.e., prevalence of hypertension at a single point in time). Religious service attendance is the primary R/S variable examined in relation to hypertension, but we expand this to include individual prayer, prayer in groups, daily spiritual experiences, yoga practice, feelings of gratitude, using God to help cope with problems (positive religious coping), and experiencing doubt or fear about God in the face of challenges (negative religious coping). The results were mixed across racial/ethnic group and gender. Among women, higher religious attendance and gratitude were associated with lower hypertension prevalence, but individual prayer was associated with higher prevalence. Few associations were noted between R/S and hypertension among men. Given these findings, along with extant research, it is important for medical practitioners serving diverse communities to recognize R/S may operate differently for men and women in varied religious and ethnic groups, with differing implications for prevalent hypertension.

Religious doubt and depression in later life: gender differences in the buffering role of supportive pastoral relationships.

OBJECTIVES: Research suggests that religious/spiritual (R/S) matters take on increasing importance in later life and tend to be favorably associated with mental health, but religious doubt or uncertainty can undermine this salubrious relationship. Few studies assess whether social relationships, and the support contained within them, can mitigate these negative mental health consequences. The current study focuses on an important yet understudied social relationship in the context of spiritual struggles in later life: informal support from a religious pastor. Members of the clergy occupy a highly prestigious position in the church and are often a trusted resource for older adults as they confront problems. DESIGN/PARTICIPANTS: We use two waves of longitudinal data of Christian older adults in the Religion, Health, and Aging Study (2001-2004) from the United States (N = 639) to test whether support from a pastor attenuates any detrimental mental health effects of carrying religious doubt in later life. RESULTS: Results from lagged dependent variable models suggest that increases in religious doubt are associated with increases in depression over time, and that greater pastoral support attenuates the relationship between increases in religious doubt and depression, but only for men. CONCLUSIONS: We highlight the need for future research to explore this important social relationship with religious clergy for older adults in confronting both spiritual and secular challenges and the importance of considering gender differences in the process. We also suggest several practical implications for religious clergy, family members, and older adults in dealing with or helping others confront spiritual struggles.

Religious affiliation and debt among U.S. households.

Religion has been shown to have both a direct and indirect role in shaping personal values, especially pertaining to money and wealth accumulation. Existing research establishes a strong relationship between religious affiliation and wealth attainment. However, previous scholarship has largely ignored the link between religious affiliation and debt, an important yet overlooked indicator of total net worth. To address this gap, we utilize data from the 2017 wave of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) and examine how religious affiliation is associated with two forms of household debt: credit card and mortgage debt. Findings from a series of logistic regression models indicate that Black Protestants have the lowest rates of both credit card and mortgage debt and Hispanic/Latinx Catholics have comparably low rates of credit card debt relative to Conservative Protestants. KHB decomposition analyses reveal that race/ethnicity explain some of the relationship between a Black Protestant or Hispanic/Latinx Catholic religious affiliation and household debt. While our study is the first to document the link between religious affiliation and debt profiles of Americans, we would encourage future research to explore how other elements of religiosity-long acknowledged by sociologists to affect wealth and social status-influence different types of debt accumulation in nuanced and meaningful ways.

Unpacking the Relationship Between Prayer and Anxiety: A Consideration of Prayer Types and Expectations in the United States.

Prayer, considered by some to be the essence of religion, has been a universal behavior throughout human history. Scholars have increasingly recognized that there are different types of prayer and various prayer purposes, but little work has been done to examine their mental health consequences beyond an examination of prayer frequencies. In this study, we draw on nationally representative data from Wave 6 of the Baylor Religion Survey (2021) to examine whether four subtypes of prayer are associated with anxiety: prayer efficacy (the belief that prayer can solve personal and world problems); devotional prayer (praise of God and prayer for the well-being of others); prayers for support (e.g., better health, financial aid); and prayer expectancies (whether God answers prayers). Results suggest that prayer efficacy, prayers for support, and one form of devotional prayer (asking God for forgiveness) all correlate with higher anxiety, while another form of devotional prayer (praise of God) and prayer expectancies are associated with lower anxiety in the American population. We note the importance of capturing multidimensional phenomenon that comprise religious prayer life within the extensive religion and health literature.

Spiritually Well, Mentally Well? Examining the Early Life Religious Antecedents of the Impact of Spiritual Well-Being on Mental Health Among United Methodist Clergy in North Carolina.

Research has consistently shown that the seeds of religiosity are planted and begin to take form during early life socialization, but little attention have been given to these dynamics among clergy members. In this study, we consider whether early life religious exposure may amplify the beneficial effects of spiritual well-being (having a "thriving" spiritual life) for mental health and burnout for clergy. Drawing from a life course perspective, we use longitudinal data from the Clergy Health Initiative, which sampled United Methodist Clergy in North Carolina (n = 1330). Key results suggest that higher frequencies of childhood religious attendance were consistently associated with lower depressive symptoms and burnout. The beneficial associations between spiritual well-being and lower depressive symptoms and burnout were also stronger for clergy with greater church attendance in childhood. The accumulation of "religious capital" for clergy who were raised in religious households with regular service attendance appear to accentuate the positive effects of spiritual well-being, which encompass a greater sense of closeness to God in their own lives and in ministry. This study identifies the importance of researchers taking a "longer" view of the religious and spiritual lives of clergy.

Childhood Abuse, Goal-Striving Stress and Self-Esteem: An Explanatory Role for Perceptions of Divine Control?

Early life course events and experiences affect lifelong processes of human development, and at the forefront of life course research, is how negative conditions during childhood compromise adult well-being. In the current study, we propose that individuals who experience early life adversity may be more susceptible to the effect of stressors that are also very much rooted in the self-concept, namely goal-striving stress, the feeling of falling short of one's expectations. Using data from the 2014 Nashville Stress and Health Study from the United States (NSAHS), we examine this process and consider how elements of religiosity, particularly beliefs in God's causal influence in human life (divine control) explain why goal-striving stress takes a larger toll on the self-esteem of individuals who experienced childhood abuse. Our findings indicate that (1) childhood abuse was positively associated with goal-striving stress and inversely associated with self-esteem, (2) goal-striving stress was inversely associated with self-esteem, (3) goal-striving stress exacerbated the association between childhood abuse and lower self-esteem. Mediated-moderation analyses also revealed that (4) lower perceptions of divine control explain why goal-striving stress was more damaging for victims of childhood abuse. Taken together, this study contributes to a growing body of work on anticipatory stressors and linkages to the self-concept for victims of early life adversity, and how adversity early in the life course might undermine key religious resources like divine control that may otherwise mitigate the noxious effects of stress.

Crisis of Faith and Sleep Quality in the United States: A Literal Dark Night of the Soul?

A crisis of faith is an intrapersonal struggle with ultimate meaning that occurs when one's supramundane reality is called in question. We propose a theoretical model which suggests that a crisis of faith will contribute to poorer sleep quality by undermining a general sense of meaning and purpose in life, especially among women. We use national survey data from the Wave 5 of the Baylor Religion Survey United States (N = 1395). Ordinary least squares regression models with robust standard errors are utilized. Sobel-Goodman mediation techniques are used to test the proposed mediating pathway. Our results suggest that a crisis of faith is associated with lower sleep quality, and that this pathway is partially mediated by a lower sense of meaning and purpose in life. Finally, we found that the relationship between a crisis of faith and lower sleep quality was weaker for women. We discuss the implications of our results and suggest how future research may explore the relevance of a crisis of faith for well-being as well as other aspects of the human condition.

Religion and Pandemic Weight Gain: A Refuge from the Storm?

The COVID-19 pandemic was an inherently stressful global crisis that was associated with weight gain for over 40% of the American public. Building on previous research, we draw on recently collected national survey data from the United States to examine the effects of religious attendance (both in-person and virtual), the sense of divine control, and religious/spiritual (R/S) struggles on pandemic weight gain. A series of logistic regression models were conducted. Our findings suggest that divine control and monthly in-person religious attendance were associated with a lower risk of pandemic weight gain, while R/S struggles were associated with a higher risk of weight gain. Our results reveal the complex role that religiosity can play with respect to pandemic weight gain.

Uncertainty in Faith, Fear of Death? Transitions in Religious Doubt and Death Anxiety in Later Life.

While religiosity is usually associated with lower death anxiety, holding doubts about one's faith are associated with higher death anxiety. Using longitudinal data from the Religion, Aging, and Health Study (2001-2004), this study examines within-individual changes in religious doubt and death anxiety. Results from lagged dependent variable models suggest that compared to older adults who did not experience any doubt about their faith, those holding consistently high doubt or increasing or decreasing doubt reported greater death anxiety. Lingering religious doubt was associated with higher death anxiety among weekly religious attenders. Taken together, our findings suggest that being more assured in one's faith and spiritual understanding may lead to a more peaceful experience when confronting thoughts about one's own mortality, especially for older adults holding a stronger religious identity. We situate our findings within the literature on the "dark side" of religion and well-being in later life.

Religious/spiritual struggles and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic: Does "talking religion" help or hurt?

Background: Research to date has suggested that religion might be a source of comfort and strength in times of crisis brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, but it may also be a form of stress if spiritual struggles are experienced. We posit the discussion of religious and spiritual matters as a potential feature of religious life that may be helpful or harmful for dealing with the impacts of spiritual struggles. Purpose: This study has two objectives. First, we assess the association between religious/spiritual struggles and both perceptions of psychological distress and self-rated health, affording attention to the prevalence of religious struggles during this time. Second, drawing from social penetration theory, we consider both the potential helpful and harmful role of discussing religion with friends and family members for the well-being of those experiencing various degrees of religious/spiritual struggles. Methods: Using data from a nationally representative sample of Americans collected in January 2021, nearly a year after the onset of the pandemic (N = 1,711), we conduct a series of OLS and ordinal logistic regression models. Results: Results suggest that religious/spiritual struggles were somewhat common among Americans during COVID-19 and were associated with greater psychological distress and worse perceived self-rated health during the pandemic. In the context of high R/S struggles, both psychological distress and perceived self-rated health were more favorable when religious and spiritual matters were discussed very frequently, several times a week or more. Unlike for psychological distress, however, we found no evidence that discussion of religious matters in the face of greater R/S struggles exacerbated their ill effect on health. Supplemental analyses showed that these findings are not being driven by religious denominational differences across our focal variables. Conclusions and implications: Encouraged by discussions of faith with close network confidants, people experiencing R/S struggles might seek help in the form of counseling in both secular and/or religious settings. Exploring potential resilience factors, such as religious discussion, may help inform broader or more local strategies aimed at economic recovery. Our results therefore invite future investigation into the role of religious coping in mitigating the health effects of pandemic hardship.

Changes in Religiosity and Reliance on God During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Protective Role Under Conditions of Financial Strain?

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic was one of the most devastating disasters of the twenty-first century and has exacted a steep health and economic toll. During times of suffering caused by the pandemic, religion/spirituality may prove to be a consistent and valuable coping resource. Purpose: We situate changes in religious importance and reliance on God as key aspects of religious life that may be important coping mechanisms in response to pandemic-related financial hardship, addressing a gap in the literature on religious coping during the pandemic and considering self-reported changes in religiosity. Methods: We use data from a nationally representative sample of Americans that was collected in 2021 (N = 1704) and employ a series of OLS Regression Models. Results: Our results suggest that relying more heavily on God was associated with lower psychological distress, and a stronger reliance on God buffered the deleterious consequences of financial strain on psychological distress. No such patterns were documented for religious importance. Conclusion and Implications: We discuss our findings within the broader religion and health literature as to whether secondary control via a divine power reduces or enhances individual agency and discuss religion/spirituality may be a consistent and valuable coping resource through adversity and suffering. Though it may be challenging to maintain, or increase, religious/spiritual beliefs in the face of adversity, that there were observed benefits to well-being for doing so could serve as insightful guidance for both religious leaders and R/S individuals.

Humble with God? How Education and Race Shape the Association Between God-Mediated Control and Humility in Later Life.

Background: In contrast to the vibrant interdisciplinary literature on other virtues, such as forgiveness and gratitude, the study of humility has developed more slowly. Over the 2 decades, there has been a proliferation of research on humility. In this study, we assess the interrelationship between a core feature of religious life, God-mediated control, and humility. Purpose: We assess the interrelationship between God-mediated control (the belief that God is a collaborative partner working together with humans) and humility. We also assess how the relationship between God-mediated control and humility may be conditional on two sociodemographic characteristics among middle-aged and older adults, education and race. Methods: Data for this study come from Wave 5 of the Religion, Aging, and Health Study (2013), a nationwide survey of Whites and African Americans (N = 1152). We test our hypotheses with a series of OLS regression models. Results: We find that stronger perceptions of God-mediated control were associated with greater humility among older adults. Results from our moderation analyses also show that the relationship between God-mediated control and greater humility was stronger for low status groups, namely, the less educated and Black older adults. Conclusion and Implications: The cognitive belief that God can be trusted as an intimate collaborator in the chaos of human life appears to predict humility among older adults, perhaps by acknowledging one's dependence on a superior being and appreciating the limits of human finitude and acknowledging God's greatness outside one's self. Devoid of secular resources, the less educated and Black Americans might find greater meaning and significance in their association with God and may feel no need to establish their own worth through the attainment of worldly accomplishments or knowledge. Given the centrality of humility to religious/spiritual life, we suggest how future interdisciplinary research can build on the findings of our study.

Perceptions of Dignity, Attachment to God, and Mental Health in a National US Sample.

Dignity is a human characteristic equated with real worth, a sense of moral and social personhood, and should have clear links to mental well-being. Empirical work on perceived dignity is relatively scant, but it stands to reason that one source of dignity might be gathered through religion/spirituality, especially through one's relationship with God or a divine power. In this study, we test whether attachment to God may protect against the hypothesized negative mental health consequences of having low perceptions of dignity. Using nationally representative data from the 2017 Baylor Religion Survey (N = 1375), we find that lower perceptions of dignity were associated with higher depression and anxiety. We found that for respondents with low self-perceptions of dignity, stronger feelings of secure attachment to God attenuated (weakened) the otherwise positive association between low dignity and greater depression and anxiety. Taken together, a secure attachment to God could lead believers to confront challenges and problems, including one's dignity being undermined, with confidence and security. We offer future directions for research on an understudied concept in the religion and health literature.

Does the Belief in Biblical Literalism Matter for Mental Health? Assessing Variations by Gender and Dimensions of Religiosity.

Although biblical literalism is one of the most powerful ideological indicators of religiousness in the sociological study of religion, we know very little about its role vis-à-vis mental health. This is a surprising oversight, given the centrality of the Bible to both public and private religious practice in the USA. This study considers whether the belief in biblical literalism is associated with general mental health and anxiety, and whether this relationship is moderated by gender and two dimensions of religiosity: attendance and attachment to God. Data are drawn from the 2010 Baylor Religion Survey (N = 1360). Regression results suggest that stronger beliefs in biblical literalism are associated with better mental health and lower anxiety, but only among women who attend religious services weekly. However, women holding strong literalist views but falling short of weekly attendance norms reported worse mental health. There was no evidence that the relationship between biblical literalism and mental health differed by attachment to God. The implications of these results for the broader study of religion and health are discussed in light of prior research on the "dark side" of religion, recognizing that causal claims cannot be made due to the cross-sectional nature of the data.