Phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy in malformations of cortical development.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to evaluate phospholipid metabolism in patients with malformations of cortical development (MCDs). METHODS: Thirty-seven patients with MCDs and 31 control subjects were studied using three-dimensional phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((31)P-MRS) at 3.0 T. The voxels in the lesions and in the frontoparietal cortex of the control subjects were compared (the effective volumes were 12.5 cm(3)). Robust quantification methods were applied to fit the time-domain data to the following resonances: phosphoethanolamine (PE); phosphocholine (PC); inorganic phosphate (Pi); glycerophosphoethanolamine (GPE); glycerophosphocholine (GPC); phosphocreatine (PCr); and α-, ß-, and γ-adenosine triphosphate (ATP). We also estimated the total ATP (ATP(t) = α-+ß-+γ-ATP), phosphodiesters (PDE = GPC+GPE), phosphomonoesters (PME = PE+PC), and the PME/PDE, PCr/ATP(t) and PCr/Pi ratios. The magnesium (Mg(2+)) levels and pH values were calculated based on PCr, Pi, and ß-ATP chemical shifts. KEY FINDINGS: Compared to controls and assuming that a p-value < 0.05 indicates statistical significance, the patients with MCDs exhibited significantly lower pH values and higher Mg(2+) levels. In addition, the patients with MCDs had lower GPC and PDE and an increased PME/PDE ratio. SIGNIFICANCE: Mg(2+) and pH are important in the regulation of bioenergetics and are involved in many electrical activity pathways in the brain. Our data support the idea that neurometabolic impairments occur during seizure onset and propagation. The GPC, PDE, and PME/PDE abnormalities also demonstrate that there are membrane turnover disturbances in patients with MCDs.

Social cognition in childhood epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes.

PURPOSE: Social cognition is involved in the perception, processing, and interpretation of social information. For this reason, social cognition is a crucial domain for successful communication and interpersonal relationships. With this in mind, we aimed to assess social cognition in children with Self-Limited Childhood Epilepsy with Centrotemporal Spikes (CECTS) and its association with traditional executive function tests and clinical variables of epilepsy. METHODS: We evaluated 23 patients with CECTS (65% male, mean age of 10.64 years) and 20 healthy children (75% male, mean age of 10.15 years). We used the Faux-Pas Child Task (FP) to analyze social cognition and a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests to evaluate domains of classic executive functions. RESULTS: Patients with CECTS had impairments in FP compared to healthy children [p < 0.001]. Impairments in some areas of traditional executive functions were related to worse social cognition in patients with CECTS. Epilepsy-related factors did not impair the performance on FP, except for the number of antiseizure medication [p = 0.016]. CONCLUSIONS: Social cognition is impaired in children and adolescents with CECTS. The presence of ongoing seizures and frequent epileptiform activity were not correlated with social cognition. Therefore, epilepsy per se was more relevant for social cognition than its severity.

Executive dysfunction in children and adolescents with temporal lobe epilepsy: is the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test enough?

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is the gold standard in the evaluation of executive dysfunction (ED) in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). We evaluated 35 children with TLE and 25 healthy controls with the WCST and with a more comprehensive battery. Among the children with TLE, 77.14% showed impairment on the WCST. On other tests (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Digit Forward, Matching Familiar Figures Test, Trail Making Test, Word Fluency, Finger Windows, and Number-Letter Memory), impairment was demonstrated in 94.29%. The authors concluded that the WCST is a good paradigm to measure executive impairment in children with TLE; however, it may be not enough. Evaluation performed only with the WCST not only underestimated the number of patients with ED, but also missed relevant information regarding the type of ED.

DTI-based tractography of the arcuate fasciculus in patients with polymicrogyria and language disorders.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the integrity of the arcuate fasciculus (AF) with diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and tractography in patients with congenital polymicrogyria (PMG) and language disorders. METHODS: Twelve patients with PMG and 12 matched controls were prospectively evaluated with DTI (32 gradient encoding directions, b-value=1000 s/mm(2)) at 3.0T. The AF was virtually dissected with a deterministic streamline approach. DTI metrics included FA (fractional anisotropy), mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (AD) and radial diffusivity (RD). A subset of patients (n=4) was evaluated to assess cognitive performance and language skills. RESULTS: Qualitative evaluation revealed several abnormalities in tracts size and architecture in nearly all PMG patients. Remarkably, in 3 patients with bilateral PMG, the AF was not delineated on both hemispheres. In comparison to controls, patients exhibited significant decrease of FA (p=0.003) in addition to increase of RD (p=0.03) in the right AF, whereas there was significant increase of MD in the left AF (p=0.04). All 4 patients with language evaluation had suboptimal performance on lexical fluency and prosodic linguistic. CONCLUSIONS: DTI and tractography suggest that the AF is severely disrupted in patients with PMG, providing an anatomical in vivo substrate for the language disorders commonly associated with these cortical malformations.

Neonatal seizures: the overlap between diagnosis of metabolic disorders and structural abnormalities. Case report.

UNLABELLED: Inborn metabolic errors (IME) and cortical developmental malformations are uncommon etiologies of neonatal seizures, however they may represent treatable causes of refractory epilepsy and for this reason must be considered as possible etiological factors. This case report aims to demonstrate the importance of neuroimaging studies in one patient with neonatal seizures, even when there are clues pointing to a metabolic disorder. CASE REPORT: A previously healthy 14 day-old child started presenting reiterated focal motor seizures (FMS) which evolved to status epilepticus. Exams showed high serum levels of ammonia and no other abnormalities. A metabolic investigation was conducted with normal results. During follow-up, the patient presented developmental delay and left side hemiparesia. Seizures remained controlled with anti-epileptic drugs for four months, followed by relapse with repetitive FMS on the left side. Temporary improvement was obtained with anti-epileptic drug adjustment. At the age of 6 months, during a new episode of status epilepticus, high ammonia levels were detected. Other metabolic exams remained normal. The child was referred to a video-electroencephalographic monitoring and continuous epileptiform discharges were recorded over the right parasagittal and midline regions, with predominance over the posterior quadrant. A new neuroimaging study was performed and displayed a malformation of cortical development. Our case illustrates that because newborns are prone to present metabolic disarrangement, an unbalance such as hyperammonemia may be a consequence of acute events and conduct to a misdiagnosis of IME.

Diffusion abnormalities of the corpus callosum in patients with malformations of cortical development and epilepsy.

PURPOSE: Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique that can characterize white matter (WM) architecture and microstructure. DTI has demonstrated extensive WM changes in patients with several epileptic syndromes, but few studies have focused on patients with malformations of cortical development (MCD). Our aim was to investigate the quantitative diffusion properties of the corpus callosum (CC), a major commissural bundle critical in inter-hemispheric connectivity, in a large group of patients with MCD. METHODS: Thirty-two MCD patients and 32 age and sex-matched control subjects were evaluated with DTI at 3.0 T. We analyzed the three major subdivisions of the CC (genu, body, and splenium) with deterministic tractography to yield fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), parallel diffusivity (λ||) and perpendicular diffusivity (λ⊥). We further assessed the CC with region of interest (ROI)-based analyses and evaluated different subgroups of MCD (polymicrogyria/schizencephaly, heterotopia, and cortical dysplasia). Partial correlations between diffusion changes and clinical parameters (epilepsy duration and age at disease onset) were also queried. RESULTS: There were significant reductions of FA, accompanied by increases in MD and λ⊥ in all segments of the CC in the patients group with both analytical methods. The absolute differences in FA were greater on ROI-analyses. There were no significant differences between the MCD subgroups, and no correlations between clinical parameters of epilepsy and FA. CONCLUSIONS: Our study indicates DTI abnormalities consistent with microstructural changes in the corpus callosum of MCD patients. The findings support the idea that patients with epilepsy secondary to cortical malformations present widespread WM changes that extend beyond the macroscopic MRI-visible lesions.

Depression and temporal lobe epilepsy represent an epiphenomenon sharing similar neural networks: clinical and brain structural evidences.

The relationship between depression and epilepsy has been known since ancient times, however, to date, it is not fully understood. The prevalence of psychiatric disorders in persons with epilepsy is high compared to general population. It is assumed that the rate of depression ranges from 20 to 55% in patients with refractory epilepsy, especially considering those with temporal lobe epilepsy caused by mesial temporal sclerosis. Temporal lobe epilepsy is a good biological model to understand the common structural basis between depression and epilepsy. Interestingly, mesial temporal lobe epilepsy and depression share a similar neurocircuitry involving: temporal lobes with hippocampus, amygdala and entorhinal and neocortical cortex; the frontal lobes with cingulate gyrus; subcortical structures, such as basal ganglia and thalamus; and the connecting pathways. We provide clinical and brain structural evidences that depression and epilepsy represent an epiphenomenon sharing similar neural networks.

Depression and temporal lobe epilepsy represent an epiphenomenon sharing similar neural networks: clinical and brain structural evidences / Depressão e epilepsia de lobo temporal representam um epifenômeno compartilhando redes neurais similares: evidências clínicas e de neuroimagem estrutural

The relationship between depression and epilepsy has been known since ancient times, however, to date, it is not fully understood. The prevalence of psychiatric disorders in persons with epilepsy is high compared to general population. It is assumed that the rate of depression ranges from 20 to 55% in patients with refractory epilepsy, especially considering those with temporal lobe epilepsy caused by mesial temporal sclerosis. Temporal lobe epilepsy is a good biological model to understand the common structural basis between depression and epilepsy. Interestingly, mesial temporal lobe epilepsy and depression share a similar neurocircuitry involving: temporal lobes with hippocampus, amygdala and entorhinal and neocortical cortex; the frontal lobes with cingulate gyrus; subcortical structures, such as basal ganglia and thalamus; and the connecting pathways. We provide clinical and brain structural evidences that depression and epilepsy represent an epiphenomenon sharing similar neural networks.

A relação entre depressão e epilepsia é conhecida desde a antiguidade; entretanto, até o momento, não é completamente compreendida. A prevalência de transtornos psiquiátricos nas pessoas com epilepsia é elevada quando comparada à população em geral. A taxa de depressão varia de 20 a 55% nos pacientes com epilepsia refratária, especialmente considerando-se aqueles com epilepsia do lobo temporal causada por esclerose mesial temporal. A epilepsia do lobo temporal é um bom modelo biológico para compreender as bases estruturais comuns entre a epilepsia e a depressão. É relevante ressaltar que a epilepsia do lobo mesial e a depressão apresentam circuitos similares envolvendo: os lobos temporais com o hipocampo, a amigdala, o córtex entorrinal e o neocortex; os lobos frontais com o giro cíngulo; estruturas subcorticais, como os núcleos da base e o tálamo, e suas vias de conexão. Postulamos por meio de evidências clínicas e estruturais que a depressão e a epilepsia representam um epifenômeno com redes neuronais similares.

Droga órfã: surgimento de um novo conceito / Orphan drug: arisement of new concept

INTRODUÇÃO: A partir de 2007, quatro novas drogas anti-epilépticas foram aprovadas, o acetato de eslicarbazepina, lacosamida, rufinamida e estiripentol. Destas drogas, duas aparecem como drogas órfãs, ou seja, drogas desenvolvidas especificamente para o tratamento de uma síndrome-específica, sendo essas, o estiripentol, indicada na Síndrome de Dravet e a rufinamida, na Síndrome de Lennox-Gastaut. OBJETIVO: Revisar a eficácia, tolerabilidade e efeitos adversos das novas drogas, em especial das drogas órfãs. MÉTODO: Estudos foram selecionados de banco de dados eletrônicos. A análise destes estudos averiguou a eficácia, efetividade, efeitos adversos mais comuns, raros e de longo prazo assim como a comparação com os fármacos existentes. CONCLUSÕES: O desenvolvimento de drogas específicas no tratamento das síndromes epilépticas constitui-se na pedra angular do tratamento da epilepsia, minimizando o tempo até o alcance do controle de crises, com consequente menor tempo de exposição aos efeitos deletérios da epilepsia.

INTRODUCTION: Four new antiepileptic drugs have been approved since 2007, eslicarbazepine acetate, lacosamide, rufinamide and stiripentol. Out of these, two drugs are orphan drugs, that is, drugs specifically designed for the treatment of a specific epileptic syndrome, such as stiripentol for Dravet Syndrome and rufinamide for Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome. OBJECTIVE: to review the efficacy, tolerability and adverse effects of the newly released drugs, especially of both orphan drugs. METHODOLOGY: Studies were selected from electronic data base. Analyses of these studies ascertained the most common, rare and long-term adverse effects, efficacy, and effectiveness, as well as comparison with existing drugs. CONCLUSIONS: The development of specific drugs in the treatment of epileptic syndromes constitutes the cornerstone in the treatment of epilepsy, minimizing the time needed to achieve seizure control, with consequent reduced exposure to the deleterious effects of epilepsy.

Uma janela terapêutica para a estimulação magnética transcraniana na epilepsia refratária / A therapeutic window for transcranial magnetic stimulation in refractory epilepsy

A epilepsia é determinada por uma alteração no equilíbrio cortical entre impulsos excitatórios e inibitórios, portanto, métodos capazes de reequilibrar esse desbalanço no funcionamento cerebral serão importantes armas terapêuticas. A estimulação magnética tanscraniana 9EMT) é um procedimento não invasivo capaz de modular a excitabilidade cortical. Neste trabalho, nós revisamos o papel atual da EMT no tratamento da epilepsia refratária. O MEDLINE foi usado como banco de dados para revisar os artigos e resumos mais pertinentes. O tratamento com EMTr (EMT de repetição) em pacientes com epilepsia refratária é segura e pode trazer um benefício para pacientes refratários sem indicação cirúrgica. Embora haja uma escassez de estudos randomizados com grupos homogêneos de pacientes, há evidências de que pacientes com lesões neocorticais serão beneficiados com este tratamento mais do que aqueles com lesões mesiais, o que pode significar uma limitação deste método não-invasivo. A EMT pode representar um importante instrumento terapêutico , não invasivo e seguro, para pacientes com epilepsia refratária sem indicação cirúrgica, em especial aqueles com lesões neocorticais

A disfunção do lobo frontal em crianças e adolescentes com epilepsia de lobo temporal e sua possível correlação com a ocorência de transtornos psiquiátricos / Frontal lobe disfunction in children and adolescents with temporal lobe epilepsy and possible correlation with psychiatric disorders

Há evidências de que pessoas com alguns tipos de epilepsia podem apresentar prejuízos cognitivos, sendo que para alguns pacientes, tais déficts cognitivos podem ser mais delibitantes do que suas crises epilépticas. A disfunção do lobo frontal é relatada em adultos com epilepsia do lobo temporal, caracterizada pela disfunção executiva. Rever a literatura sobre a ocorrência de disfunção de lobo frontal em crianças e adolescentes com epilepsia do lobo temporal. Revisão sistemática da literatura compulsada no PUBMED. A disfunção do lobo frontal tem sido pouco estudada em crianças com epilepsia, em especial do lobo temporal. No único estudo sobre este assunto, demonstrou-se que há um déficit executivo, sendo que as crianças com esclerose mesial tem maiores déficits de execução/planejamento do que aquelas com lesões neocorticais temporais ou frontais. A presença de uma disfunção do lobo frontal nos pacientes com epilepsia parcial e generalizada pode corroborar as evidências de que epilepsia e transtornos psiquiátricos são epifenômenos e não fenômenos com relação causa-efeito. Há uma escassez de artigos sobre a disfunção do lobo frontal em crianças com epilepsia do lobo temporal, sendo de interesse saber se esta ocorre e se pacientes com etiologias distintas apresentam diferentes graus de comprometimento destas funções

Pesquisa em epilepsia na infância / Research in epilepsy in the childhood

Este relato pretende divulgar a pesquisa em epilepsia na infância realizada por diferentes centros no nosso país. Estas informações foram apresentadas durante o Fórum Nacional de Epilepsia (XX Congresso Brasileiro de Neurofisiologia Clínica), e ilustram os esforços de cada grupo para promover pesquisa e conhecimentos sobre epilepsia em populações pediátricas. Os principais temas pesquisados incluem epidemiologia, eletrencefalografia, genética e aspectos cognitivos em crianças com epilepsia, estudos controlados de drogas antiepilépticas em diferentes síndromes epilépticas da infância, dieta cetogênica, crises únicas e crises febris, epilepsia do lobo frontal e do lobo temporal, síndrome de West e espasmos infantis, estado de mal epiléptico, malformações do desenvolvimento cortical, sono e epilepsia, cirurgia de epilepsia, co-morbidade psiquiátrica e aspectos de neuroimagem associados à epilepsia na infância. Alguns centros relataram a realização de estudos colaborativos envolvendo diferentes instituições, uma importante ferramenta para o desenvolvimento da pesquisa em epilepsia na infância em nosso país.(AU)

This report describes current pediatric epilepsy research carried out in Brazilian academic centers, presented at the National Epilepsy Forum, during the XX Brazilian Clinical Neurophysiology Congress. It illustrates the different groups’ efforts to promote research and increase awareness of epilepsy in the pediatric population. Main current research lines include epidemiology, electroencephalography, genetic and cognitive issues in pediatric epilepsy, controlled clinical trials with antiepileptic drugs in different childhood epileptic syndromes, ketogenic diet, single and febrile seizures, temporal and frontal lobe epilepsy, West syndrome-infantile spasms, status epilepticus, malformations of cortical development, sleep and epilepsy, epilepsy surgery in childhood, psychiatric co-morbities and neuroimaging in childhood epilepsy. Collaborative studies, an important tool in fostering research in pediatric epilepsy in our country, are being carried out by some academic centers.(AU)

Neonatal seizures: the overlap between diagnosis of metabolic disorders and structural abnormalities. Case report

Inborn metabolic errors (IME) and cortical developmental malformations are uncommon etiologies of neonatal seizures, however they may represent treatable causes of refractory epilepsy and for this reason must be considered as possible etiological factors. This case report aims to demonstrate the importance of neuroimaging studies in one patient with neonatal seizures, even when there are clues pointing to a metabolic disorder. CASE REPORT: A previously healthy 14 day-old child started presenting reiterated focal motor seizures (FMS) which evolved to status epilepticus. Exams showed high serum levels of ammonia and no other abnormalities. A metabolic investigation was conducted with normal results. During follow-up, the patient presented developmental delay and left side hemiparesia. Seizures remained controlled with anti-epileptic drugs for four months, followed by relapse with repetitive FMS on the left side. Temporary improvement was obtained with anti-epileptic drug adjustment. At the age of 6 months, during a new episode of status epilepticus, high ammonia levels were detected. Other metabolic exams remained normal. The child was referred to a video-electroencephalographic monitoring and continuous epileptiform discharges were recorded over the right parasagittal and midline regions, with predominance over the posterior quadrant. A new neuroimaging study was performed and displayed a malformation of cortical development. Our case illustrates that because newborns are prone to present metabolic disarrangement, an unbalance such as hyperammonemia may be a consequence of acute events and conduct to a misdiagnosis of IME

Clinical characteristics and surgical outcome of patients with temporal lobe tumors and epilepsy

This is a retrospective study of 21 surgically treated patients with temporal lobe tumors and epilepsy. Evaluation included clinical data, EEG findings, structural scans, pathological diagnosis and post-surgical follow-up. There were 9 cases of ganglioglioma, 5 pilocytic astrocytoma, 3 ganglioneuroma, 2 dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumor, 1 pleomorphic xantoastrocytoma, and 1 meningioangiomatosis. Mean follow-up time was 22 months and outcome was evaluated according to Engel's classification; 76.2 percent were classified in class I and 23.8 percent in II and III. All patients classes II and III had been submitted to mesial and neocortical resections. There were no differences related to clinical characteristics, pathological diagnosis or duration of follow-up in patients seizure-free or not. All patients had abnormal MRI and ten of these had normal CT; the MRI characteristics were compared to pathological diagnosis and specific histological characteristics of the tumors were not discernible by MRI. We concluded that MRI was essential for the diagnosis and precise location of TL tumors. Ganglioglioma was the most frequent tumor and lesionectomy associated to mesial resection doesn't guarantee a better prognosis