Vitamin D did not reduce multiple sclerosis disease activity after a clinically isolated syndrome.

Low serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] and low sunlight exposure are known risk factors for the development of multiple sclerosis. Add-on vitamin D supplementation trials in established multiple sclerosis have been inconclusive. The effects of vitamin D supplementation to prevent multiple sclerosis is unknown. We aimed to test the hypothesis that oral vitamin D3 supplementation in high-risk clinically isolated syndrome (abnormal MRI, at least three T2 brain and/or spinal cord lesions), delays time to conversion to definite multiple sclerosis, that the therapeutic effect is dose-dependent, and that all doses are safe and well tolerated. We conducted a double-blind trial in Australia and New Zealand. Eligible participants were randomized 1:1:1:1 to placebo, 1000, 5000 or 10 000 international units (IU) of oral vitamin D3 daily within each study centre (n = 23) and followed for up to 48 weeks. Between 2013 and 2021, we enrolled 204 participants. Brain MRI scans were performed at baseline, 24 and 48 weeks. The main study outcome was conversion to clinically definite multiple sclerosis based on the 2010 McDonald criteria defined as either a clinical relapse or new brain MRI T2 lesion development. We included 199 cases in the intention-to-treat analysis based on assigned dose. Of these, 116 converted to multiple sclerosis by 48 weeks (58%). Compared to placebo, the hazard ratios (95% confidence interval) for conversion were 1000 IU 0.87 (0.50, 1.50); 5000 IU 1.37 (0.82, 2.29); and 10 000 IU 1.28 (0.76, 2.14). In an adjusted model including age, sex, latitude, study centre and baseline symptom number, clinically isolated syndrome onset site, presence of infratentorial lesions and use of steroids, the hazard ratios (versus placebo) were 1000 IU 0.80 (0.45, 1.44); 5000 IU 1.36 (0.78, 2.38); and 10 000 IU 1.07 (0.62, 1.85). Vitamin D3 supplementation was safe and well tolerated. We did not demonstrate reduction in multiple sclerosis disease activity by vitamin D3 supplementation after a high-risk clinically isolated syndrome.

The immune cell transcriptome is modulated by vitamin D3 supplementation in people with a first demyelinating event participating in a randomized placebo-controlled trial.

Vitamin D deficiency is a risk factor for developing multiple sclerosis. The PrevANZ trial was conducted to determine if vitamin D3 supplementation can prevent recurrent disease activity in people with a first demyelinating event. As a sub-study of this trial, we investigated the effect of supplementation on peripheral immune cell gene expression. Participants were randomized to 1000, 5000 or 10,000 international units daily of vitamin D3 or placebo. Peripheral blood was collected at baseline and 12 weeks and sent for ribonucleic acid sequencing. Datasets from 55 participants were included. Gene expression was modulated by high dose supplementation. Antigen presentation and viral response pathways were upregulated. Oxidative phosphorylation and immune signaling pathways, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-17 signaling, were downregulated. Overall, vitamin D3 supplementation for 12 weeks modulated the peripheral immune cell transcriptome with induction of anti-inflammatory gene expression profiles. Our results support a dose-dependent effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on immune gene expression.

Understanding the pathophysiology of idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH): a review of recent developments.

Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) is a condition of significant morbidity and rising prevalence. It typically affects young people living with obesity, mostly women of reproductive age, and can present with headaches, visual abnormalities, tinnitus and cognitive dysfunction. Raised intracranial pressure without a secondary identified cause remains a key diagnostic feature of this condition, however, the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms that drive this increase are poorly understood. Previous theories have focused on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) hypersecretion or impaired reabsorption, however, the recent characterisation of the glymphatic system in many other neurological conditions necessitates a re-evaluation of these hypotheses. Further, the impact of metabolic dysfunction and hormonal dysregulation in this population group must also be considered. Given the emerging evidence, it is likely that IIH is triggered by the interaction of multiple aetiological factors that ultimately results in the disruption of CSF dynamics. This review aims to provide a comprehensive update on the current theories regarding the pathogenesis of IIH.

Emulating randomised clinical trials in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis with non-randomised real-world evidence: an application using data from the MSBase Registry.

BACKGROUND: To mimic as closely as possible a randomised controlled trial (RCT) and calibrate the real-world evidence (RWE) studies against a known treatment effect would be helpful to understand if RWE can support causal conclusions in selected circumstances. The aim was to emulate the TRANSFORMS trial comparing Fingolimod (FTY) versus intramuscular interferon ß-1a (IFN) using observational data. METHODS: We extracted from the MSBase registry all the patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) collected in the period 2011-2021 who received IFN or FTY (0.5 mg) and with the same inclusion and exclusion criteria of the TRANSFORMS RCT. The primary endpoint was the annualised relapse rate (ARR) over 12 months. Patients were 1:1 propensity-score (PS) matched. Relapse-rate ratio (RR) was calculated by mean of a negative binomial regression. RESULTS: A total of 4376 patients with RRMS (1140 in IFN and 3236 in FTY) were selected. After PS, 856 patients in each group were matched. The ARR was 0.45 in IFN and 0.25 in FTY with a significant difference between the two groups (RR: 0.55, 95% CI: 0.45 to 0.68; p<0.001). The result of the emulation was very similar and fell within the 95% CI of that observed in the RCT (RR: 0.49, 95% CI: 0.37 to 0.64; p<0.001) with a standardised difference of 0.66 (p=0.51). CONCLUSIONS: By applying the same inclusion and exclusion criteria used in the RCT and employing appropriate methodology, we successfully replicated the RCT results with only minor discrepancies. Also, even if the confounding bias cannot be fully eliminated, conducting a rigorous target trial emulation could still yield valuable insights for comparative effectiveness research.

Oral corticosteroid dosage and taper duration at onset in myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease influences time to first relapse.

BACKGROUND: We sought to identify an optimal oral corticosteroid regimen at the onset of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease (MOGAD), which would delay time to first relapse while minimising cumulative corticosteroid exposure. METHODS: In a retrospective multicentre cohort study, Cox proportional hazards models examined the relationship between corticosteroid course as a time-varying covariate and time to first relapse. Simon-Makuch and Kaplan-Meier plots identified an optimal dosing strategy. RESULTS: We evaluated 109 patients (62 female, 57%; 41 paediatric, 38%; median age at onset 26 years, (IQR 8-38); median follow-up 6.2 years (IQR 2.6-9.6)). 76/109 (70%) experienced a relapse (median time to first relapse 13.7 months; 95% CI 8.2 to 37.9). In a multivariable model, higher doses of oral prednisone delayed time to first relapse with an effect estimate of 3.7% (95% CI 0.8% to 6.6%; p=0.014) reduced hazard of relapse for every 1 mg/day dose increment. There was evidence of reduced hazard of relapse for patients dosed ≥12.5 mg/day (HR 0.21, 95% CI 0.07 to 0.6; p=0.0036), corresponding to a 79% reduction in relapse risk. There was evidence of reduced hazard of relapse for those dosed ≥12.5 mg/day for at least 3 months (HR 0.12, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.44; p=0.0012), corresponding to an 88% reduction in relapse risk compared with those never treated in this range. No patient with this recommended dosing at onset experienced a Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events grade >3 adverse effect. CONCLUSIONS: The optimal dose of 12.5 mg of prednisone daily in adults (0.16 mg/kg/day for children) for a minimum of 3 months at the onset of MOGAD delays time to first relapse.

Comparing ocrelizumab to interferon/glatiramer acetate in people with multiple sclerosis over age 60.

BACKGROUND: Ongoing controversy exists regarding optimal management of disease modifying therapy (DMT) in older people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS). There is concern that the lower relapse rate, combined with a higher risk of DMT-related infections and side effects, may alter the risk-benefit balance in older pwMS. Given the lack of pwMS above age 60 in randomised controlled trials, the comparative efficacy of high-efficacy DMTs such as ocrelizumab has not been shown in older pwMS. We aimed to evaluate the comparative effectiveness of ocrelizumab, a high-efficacy DMT, versus interferon/glatiramer acetate (IFN/GA) in pwMS over the age of 60. METHODS: Using data from MSBase registry, this multicentre cohort study included pwMS above 60 who switched to or started on ocrelizumab or IFN/GA. We analysed relapse and disability outcomes after balancing covariates using an inverse probability treatment weighting (IPTW) method. Propensity scores were obtained based on age, country, disease duration, sex, baseline Expanded Disability Status Scale, prior relapses (all-time, 12 months and 24 months) and prior DMT exposure (overall number and high-efficacy DMTs). After weighting, all covariates were balanced. Primary outcomes were time to first relapse and annualised relapse rate (ARR). Secondary outcomes were 6-month confirmed disability progression (CDP) and confirmed disability improvement (CDI). RESULTS: A total of 248 participants received ocrelizumab, while 427 received IFN/GA. The IPTW-weighted ARR for ocrelizumab was 0.01 and 0.08 for IFN/GA. The IPTW-weighted ARR ratio was 0.15 (95% CI 0.06 to 0.33, p<0.001) for ocrelizumab compared with IFN/GA. On IPTW-weighted Cox regression models, HR for time to first relapse was 0.13 (95% CI 0.05 to 0.26, p<0.001). The hazard of first relapse was significantly reduced in ocrelizumab users after 5 months compared with IFN/GA users. However, the two groups did not differ in CDP or CDI over 3.57 years. CONCLUSION: In older pwMS, ocrelizumab effectively reduced relapses compared with IFN/GA. Overall relapse activity was low. This study adds valuable real-world data for informed DMT decision making with older pwMS. Our study also confirms that there is a treatment benefit in older people with MS, given the existence of a clear differential treatment effect between ocrelizumab and IFN/GA in the over 60 age group.

The MOG antibody non-P42 epitope is predictive of a relapsing course in MOG antibody-associated disease.

BACKGROUND: Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) IgG seropositivity is a prerequisite for MOG antibody-associated disease (MOGAD) diagnosis. While a significant proportion of patients experience a relapsing disease, there is currently no biomarker predictive of disease course. We aim to determine whether MOG-IgG epitopes can predict a relapsing course in MOGAD patients. METHODS: MOG-IgG-seropositive confirmed adult MOGAD patients were included (n=202). Serum MOG-IgG and epitope binding were determined by validated flow cytometry live cell-based assays. Associations between epitopes, disease course, clinical phenotype, Expanded Disability Status Scale and Visual Functional System Score at onset and last review were evaluated. RESULTS: Of 202 MOGAD patients, 150 (74%) patients had MOG-IgG that recognised the immunodominant proline42 (P42) epitope and 115 (57%) recognised histidine103/serine104 (H103/S104). Fifty-two (26%) patients had non-P42 MOG-IgG and showed an increased risk of a relapsing course (HR 1.7; 95% CI 1.15 to 2.60, p=0.009). Relapse-freedom was shorter in patients with non-P42 MOG-IgG (p=0.0079). Non-P42 MOG-IgG epitope status remained unchanged from onset throughout the disease course and was a strong predictor of a relapsing course in patients with unilateral optic neuritis (HR 2.7, 95% CI 1.06 to 6.98, p=0.038), with high specificity (95%, 95% CI 77% to 100%) and positive predictive value (85%, 95% CI 45% to 98%). CONCLUSIONS: Non-P42 MOG-IgG predicts a relapsing course in a significant subgroup of MOGAD patients. Patients with unilateral optic neuritis, the most frequent MOGAD phenotype, can reliably be tested at onset, regardless of age and sex. Early detection and specialised management in these patients could minimise disability and improve long-term outcomes.

Routine CSF parameters as predictors of disease course in multiple sclerosis: an MSBase cohort study.

BACKGROUND: It remains unclear whether routine cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) parameters can serve as predictors of multiple sclerosis (MS) disease course. METHODS: This large-scale cohort study included persons with MS with CSF data documented in the MSBase registry. CSF parameters to predict time to reach confirmed Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) scores 4, 6 and 7 and annualised relapse rate in the first 2 years after diagnosis (ARR2) were assessed using (cox) regression analysis. RESULTS: In total, 11 245 participants were included of which 93.7% (n=10 533) were persons with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS). In RRMS, the presence of CSF oligoclonal bands (OCBs) was associated with shorter time to disability milestones EDSS 4 (adjusted HR=1.272 (95% CI, 1.089 to 1.485), p=0.002), EDSS 6 (HR=1.314 (95% CI, 1.062 to 1.626), p=0.012) and EDSS 7 (HR=1.686 (95% CI, 1.111 to 2.558), p=0.014). On the other hand, the presence of CSF pleocytosis (≥5 cells/µL) increased time to moderate disability (EDSS 4) in RRMS (HR=0.774 (95% CI, 0.632 to 0.948), p=0.013). None of the CSF variables were associated with time to disability milestones in persons with primary progressive MS (PPMS). The presence of CSF pleocytosis increased ARR2 in RRMS (adjusted R2=0.036, p=0.015). CONCLUSIONS: In RRMS, the presence of CSF OCBs predicts shorter time to disability milestones, whereas CSF pleocytosis could be protective. This could however not be found in PPMS. CSF pleocytosis is associated with short-term inflammatory disease activity in RRMS. CSF analysis provides prognostic information which could aid in clinical and therapeutic decision-making.

No evidence for association between rs10191329 severity locus and longitudinal disease severity in 1813 relapse-onset multiple sclerosis patients from the MSBase registry.

BACKGROUND: The International Multiple Sclerosis Genetics Consortium and MultipleMS Consortium recently reported a genetic variant associated with multiple sclerosis (MS) severity. However, it remains unclear if these variants remain associated with more robust, longitudinal measures of disease severity. METHODS: We examined the top variant, rs10191329, from Harroud et al.'s study in 1813 relapse-onset MS patients from the MSBase Registry to assess association with longitudinal disease severity. RESULTS: Our analysis revealed no significant association between rs10191329 genotype and longitudinal binary disease severity (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: These findings highlight the complexity of genetic factors mediating long-term MS outcomes and the need for further research.

Introducing a core dataset for real-world data in multiple sclerosis registries and cohorts: Recommendations from a global task force.

BACKGROUND: As of September 2022, there was no globally recommended set of core data elements for use in multiple sclerosis (MS) healthcare and research. As a result, data harmonisation across observational data sources and scientific collaboration is limited. OBJECTIVES: To define and agree upon a core dataset for real-world data (RWD) in MS from observational registries and cohorts. METHODS: A three-phase process approach was conducted combining a landscaping exercise with dedicated discussions within a global multi-stakeholder task force consisting of 20 experts in the field of MS and its RWD to define the Core Dataset. RESULTS: A core dataset for MS consisting of 44 variables in eight categories was translated into a data dictionary that has been published and disseminated for emerging and existing registries and cohorts to use. Categories include variables on demographics and comorbidities (patient-specific data), disease history, disease status, relapses, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and treatment data (disease-specific data). CONCLUSION: The MS Data Alliance Core Dataset guides emerging registries in their dataset definitions and speeds up and supports harmonisation across registries and initiatives. The straight-forward, time-efficient process using a dedicated global multi-stakeholder task force has proven to be effective to define a concise core dataset.

The Patient-Determined Disease Steps scale is not interchangeable with the Expanded Disease Status Scale in mild to moderate multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The validity, reliability, and longitudinal performance of the Patient-Determined Disease Steps (PDDS) scale is unknown in people with multiple sclerosis (MS) with mild to moderate disability. We aimed to examine the psychometric properties and longitudinal performance of the PDDS. METHODS: We included relapsing-remitting MS patients with an Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) score of less than 4. Validity and test-retest reliability was examined. Longitudinal data were analysed with mixed-effect modelling and Cohen's kappa for concordance in confirmed disability progression (CDP). RESULTS: We recruited a total of 1093 participants, of whom 904 had complete baseline data. The baseline correlation between PDDS and EDSS was weak (ρ = 0.45, p < 0.001). PDDS had stronger correlations with patient-reported outcomes (PROs). Conversely, EDSS had stronger correlations with age, disease duration, Kurtzke's functional systems and processing speed test. PDDS test-retest reliability was good to excellent (concordance correlation coefficient = 0.73-0.89). Longitudinally, PDDS was associated with EDSS, age and depression. A higher EDSS score was associated with greater PDSS progression. The magnitude of these associations was small. There was no concordance in CDP as assessed by PDDS and EDSS. CONCLUSION: The PDDS has greater correlation with other PROs but less correlation with other MS-related outcome measures compared to the EDSS. There was little correlation between PDDS and EDSS longitudinally. Our findings suggest that the PDDS scale is not interchangeable with the EDSS.

Not all roads lead to the immune system: the genetic basis of multiple sclerosis severity.

Multiple sclerosis is a leading cause of neurological disability in adults. Heterogeneity in multiple sclerosis clinical presentation has posed a major challenge for identifying genetic variants associated with disease outcomes. To overcome this challenge, we used prospectively ascertained clinical outcomes data from the largest international multiple sclerosis registry, MSBase. We assembled a cohort of deeply phenotyped individuals of European ancestry with relapse-onset multiple sclerosis. We used unbiased genome-wide association study and machine learning approaches to assess the genetic contribution to longitudinally defined multiple sclerosis severity phenotypes in 1813 individuals. Our primary analyses did not identify any genetic variants of moderate to large effect sizes that met genome-wide significance thresholds. The strongest signal was associated with rs7289446 (ß = -0.4882, P = 2.73 × 10-7), intronic to SEZ6L on chromosome 22. However, we demonstrate that clinical outcomes in relapse-onset multiple sclerosis are associated with multiple genetic loci of small effect sizes. Using a machine learning approach incorporating over 62 000 variants together with clinical and demographic variables available at multiple sclerosis disease onset, we could predict severity with an area under the receiver operator curve of 0.84 (95% CI 0.79-0.88). Our machine learning algorithm achieved positive predictive value for outcome assignation of 80% and negative predictive value of 88%. This outperformed our machine learning algorithm that contained clinical and demographic variables alone (area under the receiver operator curve 0.54, 95% CI 0.48-0.60). Secondary, sex-stratified analyses identified two genetic loci that met genome-wide significance thresholds. One in females (rs10967273; ßfemale = 0.8289, P = 3.52 × 10-8), the other in males (rs698805; ßmale = -1.5395, P = 4.35 × 10-8), providing some evidence for sex dimorphism in multiple sclerosis severity. Tissue enrichment and pathway analyses identified an overrepresentation of genes expressed in CNS compartments generally, and specifically in the cerebellum (P = 0.023). These involved mitochondrial function, synaptic plasticity, oligodendroglial biology, cellular senescence, calcium and G-protein receptor signalling pathways. We further identified six variants with strong evidence for regulating clinical outcomes, the strongest signal again intronic to SEZ6L (adjusted hazard ratio 0.72, P = 4.85 × 10-4). Here we report a milestone in our progress towards understanding the clinical heterogeneity of multiple sclerosis outcomes, implicating functionally distinct mechanisms to multiple sclerosis risk. Importantly, we demonstrate that machine learning using common single nucleotide variant clusters, together with clinical variables readily available at diagnosis can improve prognostic capabilities at diagnosis, and with further validation has the potential to translate to meaningful clinical practice change.

The risk of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis is geographically determined but modifiable.

Geographical variations in the incidence and prevalence of multiple sclerosis have been reported globally. Latitude as a surrogate for exposure to ultraviolet radiation but also other lifestyle and environmental factors are regarded as drivers of this variation. No previous studies evaluated geographical variation in the risk of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis, an advanced form of multiple sclerosis that is characterized by steady accrual of irreversible disability. We evaluated differences in the risk of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis in relation to latitude and country of residence, modified by high-to-moderate efficacy immunotherapy in a geographically diverse cohort of patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. The study included relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis patients from the global MSBase registry with at least one recorded assessment of disability. Secondary progressive multiple sclerosis was identified as per clinician diagnosis. Sensitivity analyses used the operationalized definition of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis and the Swedish decision tree algorithm. A proportional hazards model was used to estimate the cumulative risk of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis by country of residence (latitude), adjusted for sex, age at disease onset, time from onset to relapsing-remitting phase, disability (Multiple Sclerosis Severity Score) and relapse activity at study inclusion, national multiple sclerosis prevalence, government health expenditure, and proportion of time treated with high-to-moderate efficacy disease-modifying therapy. Geographical variation in time from relapsing-remitting phase to secondary progressive phase of multiple sclerosis was modelled through a proportional hazards model with spatially correlated frailties. We included 51 126 patients (72% female) from 27 countries. The median survival time from relapsing-remitting phase to secondary progressive multiple sclerosis among all patients was 39 (95% confidence interval: 37 to 43) years. Higher latitude [median hazard ratio = 1.21, 95% credible interval (1.16, 1.26)], higher national multiple sclerosis prevalence [1.07 (1.03, 1.11)], male sex [1.30 (1.22, 1.39)], older age at onset [1.35 (1.30, 1.39)], higher disability [2.40 (2.34, 2.47)] and frequent relapses [1.18 (1.15, 1.21)] at inclusion were associated with increased hazard of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis. Higher proportion of time on high-to-moderate efficacy therapy substantially reduced the hazard of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis [0.76 (0.73, 0.79)] and reduced the effect of latitude [interaction: 0.95 (0.92, 0.99)]. At the country-level, patients in Oman, Tunisia, Iran and Canada had higher risks of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis relative to the other studied regions. Higher latitude of residence is associated with a higher probability of developing secondary progressive multiple sclerosis. High-to-moderate efficacy immunotherapy can mitigate some of this geographically co-determined risk.

Risk of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis after early worsening of disability.

BACKGROUND: Whether progression independent of relapse activity (PIRA) heralds earlier onset of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) and more rapid accumulation of disability during SPMS remains to be determined. We investigated the association between early PIRA, relapse-associated worsening (RAW) of disability and time to SPMS, subsequent disability progression and their response to therapy. METHODS: This observational cohort study included patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) from the MSBase international registry across 146 centres and 39 countries. Associations between the number of PIRA and RAW during early multiple sclerosis (MS) (the initial 5 years of MS onset) were analysed with respect to: time to SPMS using Cox proportional hazards models adjusted for disease characteristics; and disability progression during SPMS, calculated as the change of Multiple Sclerosis Severity Scores over time, using multivariable linear regression. RESULTS: 10 692 patients met the inclusion criteria: 3125 (29%) were men and the mean MS onset age was 32.2 years. A higher number of early PIRA (HR=1.50, 95% CI 1.28 to 1.76, p<0.001) and RAW (HR=2.53, 95% CI 2.25 to 2.85, p<0.001) signalled a higher risk of SPMS. A higher proportion of early disease-modifying therapy exposure (per 10%) reduced the effect of early RAW (HR=0.94, 95% CI 0.89 to 1.00, p=0.041) but not PIRA (HR=0.97, 95% CI 0.91 to 1.05, p=0.49) on SPMS risk. No association between early PIRA/RAW and disability progression during SPMS was found. CONCLUSIONS: Early disability increase during RRMS is associated with a greater risk of SPMS but not the rate of disability progression during SPMS. The deterioration associated with early relapses represents a potentially treatable risk factor of SPMS. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN12605000455662).

Heterogeneity on long-term disability trajectories in patients with secondary progressive MS: a latent class analysis from Big MS Data network.

BACKGROUND: Over the decades, several natural history studies on patients with primary (PPMS) or secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) were reported from international registries. In PPMS, a consistent heterogeneity on long-term disability trajectories was demonstrated. The aim of this study was to identify subgroups of patients with SPMS with similar longitudinal trajectories of disability over time. METHODS: All patients with MS collected within Big MS registries who received an SPMS diagnosis from physicians (cohort 1) or satisfied the Lorscheider criteria (cohort 2) were considered. Longitudinal Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) scores were modelled by a latent class growth analysis (LCGA), using a non-linear function of time from the first EDSS visit in the range 3-4. RESULTS: A total of 3613 patients with SPMS were included in the cohort 1. LCGA detected three different subgroups of patients with a mild (n=1297; 35.9%), a moderate (n=1936; 53.6%) and a severe (n=380; 10.5%) disability trajectory. Median time to EDSS 6 was 12.1, 5.0 and 1.7 years, for the three groups, respectively; the probability to reach EDSS 6 at 8 years was 14.4%, 78.4% and 98.3%, respectively. Similar results were found among 7613 patients satisfying the Lorscheider criteria. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to previous interpretations, patients with SPMS progress at greatly different rates. Our identification of distinct trajectories can guide better patient selection in future phase 3 SPMS clinical trials. Additionally, distinct trajectories could reflect heterogeneous pathological mechanisms of progression.

Effectiveness of multiple disease-modifying therapies in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: causal inference to emulate a multiarm randomised trial.

BACKGROUND: Simultaneous comparisons of multiple disease-modifying therapies for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) over an extended follow-up are lacking. Here we emulate a randomised trial simultaneously comparing the effectiveness of six commonly used therapies over 5 years. METHODS: Data from 74 centres in 35 countries were sourced from MSBase. For each patient, the first eligible intervention was analysed, censoring at change/discontinuation of treatment. The compared interventions included natalizumab, fingolimod, dimethyl fumarate, teriflunomide, interferon beta, glatiramer acetate and no treatment. Marginal structural Cox models (MSMs) were used to estimate the average treatment effects (ATEs) and the average treatment effects among the treated (ATT), rebalancing the compared groups at 6-monthly intervals on age, sex, birth-year, pregnancy status, treatment, relapses, disease duration, disability and disease course. The outcomes analysed were incidence of relapses, 12-month confirmed disability worsening and improvement. RESULTS: 23 236 eligible patients were diagnosed with RRMS or clinically isolated syndrome. Compared with glatiramer acetate (reference), several therapies showed a superior ATE in reducing relapses: natalizumab (HR=0.44, 95% CI=0.40 to 0.50), fingolimod (HR=0.60, 95% CI=0.54 to 0.66) and dimethyl fumarate (HR=0.78, 95% CI=0.66 to 0.92). Further, natalizumab (HR=0.43, 95% CI=0.32 to 0.56) showed a superior ATE in reducing disability worsening and in disability improvement (HR=1.32, 95% CI=1.08 to 1.60). The pairwise ATT comparisons also showed superior effects of natalizumab followed by fingolimod on relapses and disability. CONCLUSIONS: The effectiveness of natalizumab and fingolimod in active RRMS is superior to dimethyl fumarate, teriflunomide, glatiramer acetate and interferon beta. This study demonstrates the utility of MSM in emulating trials to compare clinical effectiveness among multiple interventions simultaneously.

An Update on the Measurement of Motor Cerebellar Dysfunction in Multiple Sclerosis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive disease that often affects the cerebellum. It is characterised by demyelination, inflammation, and neurodegeneration within the central nervous system. Damage to the cerebellum in MS is associated with increased disability and decreased quality of life. Symptoms include gait and balance problems, motor speech disorder, upper limb dysfunction, and oculomotor difficulties. Monitoring symptoms is crucial for effective management of MS. A combination of clinical, neuroimaging, and task-based measures is generally used to diagnose and monitor MS. This paper reviews the present and new tools used by clinicians and researchers to assess cerebellar impairment in people with MS (pwMS). It also describes recent advances in digital and home-based monitoring for people with MS.

Choroid plexus volume is enlarged in clinically isolated syndrome patients with optic neuritis.

OBJECTIVES: We investigated choroid plexus (CP) volume in patients presenting with optic neuritis (ON) as a clinically isolated syndrome (CIS), compared to a cohort with established relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) and healthy controls (HCs). METHODS: Three-dimensional (3D) T1, T2-FLAIR and diffusion-weighted sequences were acquired from 44 ON CIS patients at baseline, 1, 3, 6 and 12 months after the onset of ON. Fifty RRMS patients and 50 HCs were also included for comparison. RESULTS: CP volumes was larger in both ON CIS and RRMS groups compared to HCs, but not significantly different between ON CIS and RRMS patients (analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted for multiple comparisons). Twenty-three ON CIS patients who converted to clinically definite MS (MS) demonstrated CP volume similar to RRMS patients, but significantly larger compared to HCs. In this sub-group, CP volume was not associated with the severity of optic nerve inflammation or long-term axonal loss, not with brain lesion load. A transient increase of CP volume was observed following an occurrence of new MS lesions on brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). INTERPRETATION: Enlarged CP can be observed very early in a disease. It transiently reacts to acute inflammation, but not associated with the degree of tissue destruction.

Prediction of relapse activity when switching to cladribine for multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis commonly switch between disease-modifying therapies (DMTs). Identifying predictors of relapse when switching could improve outcomes. OBJECTIVE: To determine predictors of relapse hazard when switching to cladribine. METHODS: Data of patients who switched to cladribine, grouped by prior disease-modifying therapy (pDMT; interferon-ß/glatiramer acetate, dimethyl fumarate, teriflunomide, fingolimod or natalizumab (NTZ)), were extracted from the MSBase Registry. Predictors of relapse hazard during the treatment gap and the first year of cladribine therapy were determined. RESULTS: Of 513 patients, 22 relapsed during the treatment gap, and 38 within 1 year of starting cladribine. Relapse in the year before pDMT cessation predicted treatment gap relapse hazard (hazard ratio (HR) = 2.43, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.03-5.71). After multivariable adjustment, relapse hazard on cladribine was predicted by relapse before pDMT cessation (HR = 2.00, 95% CI = 1.01-4.02), treatment gap relapse (HR = 6.18, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 2.65-14.41), switch from NTZ (HR compared to injectable therapies 4.08, 95% CI = 1.35-12.33) and age at cladribine start (HR = 0.96, 95% CI = 0.91-0.99). CONCLUSION: Relapse during or prior to the treatment gap, and younger age, are of prognostic relevance in the year after switching to cladribine. Switching from NTZ is also independently associated with greater relapse hazard.

Comparative effectiveness of cladribine tablets versus other oral disease-modifying treatments for multiple sclerosis: Results from MSBase registry.

BACKGROUND: Effectiveness of cladribine tablets, an oral disease-modifying treatment (DMT) for multiple sclerosis (MS), was established in clinical trials and confirmed with real-world experience. OBJECTIVES: Use real-world data to compare treatment patterns and clinical outcomes in people with MS (pwMS) treated with cladribine tablets versus other oral DMTs. METHODS: Retrospective treatment comparisons were based on data from the international MSBase registry. Eligible pwMS started treatment with cladribine, fingolimod, dimethyl fumarate, or teriflunomide tablets from 2018 to mid-2021 and were censored at treatment discontinuation/switch, death, loss to follow-up, pregnancy, or study period end. Treatment persistence was evaluated as time to discontinuation/switch; relapse outcomes included time to first relapse and annualized relapse rate (ARR). RESULTS: Cohorts included 633 pwMS receiving cladribine tablets, 1195 receiving fingolimod, 912 receiving dimethyl fumarate, and 735 receiving teriflunomide. Individuals treated with fingolimod, dimethyl fumarate, or teriflunomide switched treatment significantly more quickly than matched cladribine tablet cohorts (adjusted hazard ratio (95% confidence interval): 4.00 (2.54-6.32), 7.04 (4.16-11.93), and 6.52 (3.79-11.22), respectively). Cladribine tablet cohorts had significantly longer time-to-treatment discontinuation, time to first relapse, and lower ARR, compared with other oral DMT cohorts. CONCLUSION: Cladribine tablets were associated with a significantly greater real-world treatment persistence and more favorable relapse outcomes than all oral DMT comparators.