The use of virtual screening and differential scanning fluorimetry for the rapid identification of fragments active against MEK1.

We report the analysis of an in-house fragment screening campaign for the oncology target MEK1. The application of virtual screening (VS) as a primary fragment screening approach, followed by biophysical validation using differential screening fluorimetry (DSF), with resultant binding mode determination by X-ray crystallography (X-ray), is presented as the most time and cost-effective combination of in silico and in vitro methods to identify fragments. We demonstrate the effectiveness of the VS-DSF workflow for the early identification of fragments to both 'jump-start' the drug discovery project and to complement biochemical screening data.

Mitogen-induced recruitment of ERK and MSK to SRE promoter complexes by ternary complex factor Elk-1.

Many eukaryotic genes are acutely regulated by extra-cellular signals. The c-fos serum response element (SRE) mediates transcriptional activation in response to mitogens through serum response factor (SRF)-dependent recruitment of Elk-1, a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-responsive transcription factor. How subsequent events at SRE promoters stimulate initiation of transcription has yet to be fully resolved. Here we show that extra-cellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and mitogen and stress-activated kinase (MSK) are recruited to SRE promoter complexes in vitro and in vivo. Their recruitment in vitro correlates with Elk-1 binding and for ERK the D domain/KIM of Elk-1 is specifically involved. In vivo, recruitment of ERK and MSK is stimulated by mitogens, correlates with histone H3 phosphorylation and is impaired by Elk-1 knockdown. Immunocytochemistry and confocal microscopy reveal that ERK appears to associate to some extent with initiating rather than elongating RNA polymerase II. Taken together, our data add to the body of evidence implying that ERK and related MAPKs may fulfil a generic role at the promoters of acutely regulated genes.

A Robust Multiplex Mass Spectrometric Assay for Screening Small-Molecule Inhibitors of CD73 with Diverse Inhibition Modalities.

CD73/Ecto-5'-nucleotidase is a membrane-tethered ecto-enzyme that works in tandem with CD39 to convert extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into adenosine. CD73 is highly expressed on various types of cancer cells and on infiltrating suppressive immune cells, leading to an elevated concentration of adenosine in the tumor microenvironment, which elicits a strong immunosuppressive effect. In preclinical studies, targeting CD73 with anti-CD73 antibody results in favorable antitumor effects. Despite initial studies using antibodies, inhibition of CD73 catalytic activity using small-molecule inhibitors may be more effective in lowering extracellular adenosine due to better tumor penetration and distribution. To screen small-molecule libraries, we explored multiple approaches, including colorimetric and fluorescent biochemical assays, and due to some limitations with these assays, we developed a mass spectrometry (MS)-based assay. Only the MS-based assay offers the sensitivity and dynamic range required for screening small-molecule libraries at a substrate concentration close to the Km value of substrate and for evaluating the mode of binding of screening hits. To achieve a throughput suitable for high-throughput screening (HTS), we developed a RapidFire-tandem mass spectrometry (RF-MS/MS)-based multiplex assay. This assay allowed a large diverse compound library to be screened at a speed of 1536 reactions per 40-50 min.

Dependence on the Pyrimidine Biosynthetic Enzyme DHODH Is a Synthetic Lethal Vulnerability in Mutant KRAS-Driven Cancers.

Activating KRAS mutations are major oncogenic drivers in multiple tumor types. Synthetic lethal screens have previously been used to identify targets critical for the survival of KRAS mutant cells, but their application to drug discovery has proven challenging, possibly due in part to a failure of monolayer cultures to model tumor biology. Here, we report the results of a high-throughput synthetic lethal screen for small molecules that selectively inhibit the growth of KRAS mutant cell lines in soft agar. Chemoproteomic profiling identifies the target of the most KRAS-selective chemical series as dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH). DHODH inhibition is shown to perturb multiple metabolic pathways. In vivo preclinical studies demonstrate strong antitumor activity upon DHODH inhibition in a pancreatic tumor xenograft model.

Anomalous behaviour of the STAT3 binding site in the human c-myc P2 promoter.

The Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 (STAT3) is necessary for ES cell renewal, plays critical roles during vertebrate development, and has oncogenic potential. STAT3 also mediates cytokine responses notably in the induction of acute phase response genes in the liver. Thus STAT3 is a pleiotropic regulator during cell proliferation and a cell-specific mediator of pro-inflammatory responses. How STAT3 fulfils both roles is unclear. To address this question we attempted to characterise pre-initiation complexes (PICs) on STAT3-responsive promoters containing the c-myc P2 promoter element (P2E) or c-fos Serum-Inducible Element (SIE). Although both promoters mediated cytokine responses in HepG2 cells, poor binding of STAT1 and STAT3 in vitro precluded isolation of active promoter complexes on the P2E. The inability of STAT3 to bind the P2E in vitro correlated with failure of the P2E to mediate cytokine-responsive gene expression in several other cell types. Thus the c-myc P2E behaves as a dual-purpose STAT3 element with anomalous characteristics in HepG2 cells.

Enzymatic reactions involved in the repair of oxidized proteins.

Proteins are the targets of reactive oxygen species, and cell aging is characterized by a build-up of oxidized proteins. Oxidized proteins tend to accumulate with age, due to either an increase in the rate of protein oxidation, a decrease in the rate of oxidized protein repair and degradation, or a combination of both mechanisms. Oxidized protein degradation is mainly carried out by the proteasomal system, which is the main intracellular proteolytic pathway involved in protein turnover and the elimination of damaged proteins. However, part of the oxidative damage to cysteine and methionine residues, two amino acids which are highly susceptible to oxidation, can be repaired by various enzymatic systems that catalyze the reduction of cysteine disulfide bridge, cysteine-sulfenic and -sulfinic acids as well as methionine sulfoxide. The aim of this review is to describe these enzymatic oxidized protein repair systems and their potential involvement in the decline of protein maintenance associated with aging, focusing in particular on the methionine sulfoxide reductases system.

Integration of protein kinases into transcription complexes: identifying components of immobilised in vitro pre-initiation complexes.

Regulation of gene expression is essential for coordinated cell growth and development. The de-regulation of certain genes is also recognised to contribute to both heritable and acquired disease. Transcription factors influence the assembly and activity of transcription complexes, which they achieve in part by recruiting co-activators to gene promoters to participate in the dynamic cycle of polymerase binding, initiation and escape from the promoter. Co-activator recruitment and accompanying post-translational modifications to components of promoter complexes appear to differ between genes and as a consequence of varying signal input. Thus a full understanding of transcriptional initiation and control will ultimately require the elucidation of these processes. The method described here was designed to detect the presence of proteins and post-translational modifications in complexes formed in vitro on gene-specific promoters. It has been used, among other things, to detect the recruitment of the Mitogen-Activated Protein (MAP) kinases ERK1 and ERK2 to the promoters of mitogen-responsive genes.

Subcellular localization of methionine sulphoxide reductase A (MsrA): evidence for mitochondrial and cytosolic isoforms in rat liver cells.

Proteins are sensitive to reactive oxygen species, and the accumulation of oxidized proteins has been implicated in the aging process and in other age-related pathologies. In proteins, methionine residues are especially sensitive to oxidation, leading to S - and R -methionine sulphoxide diastereoisomers, the reversion of which is achieved by the peptide methionine sulphoxide reductases MsrA and MsrB respectively. The MsrA enzyme, in addition to its role in repair, forms part of the reactive oxygen species scavenging systems that are important in cellular antioxidant defence. MsrA is present in most living organisms, and the mammalian enzyme has been detected in all tissues investigated. In the present study, we investigated the subcellular distribution of MsrA in rat liver cells. Since it seemed likely that MsrA may be localized in areas where reactive oxygen species are produced, rat liver mitochondrial matrix and cytosolic extracts were prepared. The presence of MsrA was assayed in these subcellular compartments by monitoring peptide methionine sulphoxide reductase enzymic activity, by Western blotting and by in situ immunolocalization by electron microscopy using a specific antibody. Moreover, MsrA was identified by MS in a partially purified cytosolic fraction and in a mitochondrial matrix crude extract. Rat MsrA isoforms are encoded by a single gene, and it is suggested that the precursor of the mitochondrial form contains an N-terminal cleavable signal sequence that localizes the MsrA to this organelle. Finally, two-dimensional gel electrophoresis followed by Western-blot analysis of partially purified MsrA from the cytosol and mitochondria, and comparison with the two-dimensional patterns of oxidized recombinant MsrA, revealed oxidative modifications of cysteine residues.

Essential role of methionine residues in calmodulin binding to Bordetella pertussis adenylate cyclase, as probed by selective oxidation and repair by the peptide methionine sulfoxide reductases.

Bordetella pertussis, the causative agent of whooping cough, secretes among other virulence factors an adenylate cyclase (AC) toxin that is able to enter into eukaryotic cells where it is activated upon binding to endogenous calmodulin (CaM) and synthesizes supraphysiological cAMP levels. In vivo, the AC toxin, through its specific interaction with the CD11b/CD18 integrin, primarily targets phagocytic cells such as neutrophils and macrophages. Because neutrophil priming and activation result in the production of reactive oxygen species that may cause intracellular oxidation, we have examined the biological consequences of the oxidation of CaM methionines upon its interaction with AC. We show here that the interaction of CaM with AC is dependent on the reduced state of methionines, because oxidation of all methionine residues of CaM dramatically decreases its affinity for AC. Peptide methionine sulfoxide reductases A (MsrA) and B (MsrB) were able to partially reduce the oxidized CaM, and these partially "repaired" forms could interact with AC nearly as efficiently as the native protein. We further showed that the CaM.AC complex is resistant to oxidation with tert-butylhydroperoxide, and we identified methionine residues 109, 124, and 145 as critical for binding to AC. The resistance of the AC.CaM complex to oxidation and the ability of AC to be efficiently activated by partially oxidized CaM molecules should allow the toxin to exert its cytotoxic effects on activated neutrophils and contribute to the host colonization.