The successful use of a search strategy improves with visuospatial working memory in 2- to 4.5-year-olds.

Using spatial cues such as shape, orientation, and pattern aids visuospatial working memory because it allows strategies that reduce the load on this cognitive resource. One such strategy, namely taking advantage of patterned spatial distributions, remains understudied to date. This strategy demands keeping track of already-searched locations and excluding them from further search and so correlates with visuospatial working memory. The use of such strategies should, in principle, develop in early childhood, but because most studies focus on chunking, the development of other strategies reducing the load on working memory is understudied in young children. Therefore, in this study we tested whether children aged 2 to 4.5 years (N = 97) could take advantage of spatial cues in their search and whether this ability correlated with their age, verbal ability, and visuospatial working memory. The results showed that the ability to use a patterned spatial distribution (searching a row of locations from one side to the other instead of a random search) significantly improved with visuospatial working memory but not with age or verbal ability. These results suggest that visuospatial abilities may rapidly develop from 2 to 4.5 years of age, and given their impact on later mathematic achievement, demand increased attention in cognitive developmental research and early childhood education.

Single cell sequencing of radial glia progeny reveals the diversity of newborn neurons in the adult zebrafish brain.

Zebrafish display widespread and pronounced adult neurogenesis, which is fundamental for their regeneration capability after central nervous system injury. However, the cellular identity and the biological properties of adult newborn neurons are elusive for most brain areas. Here, we have used short-term lineage tracing of radial glia progeny to prospectively isolate newborn neurons from the her4.1+ radial glia lineage in the homeostatic adult forebrain. Transcriptome analysis of radial glia, newborn neurons and mature neurons using single cell sequencing identified distinct transcriptional profiles, including novel markers for each population. Specifically, we detected two separate newborn neuron types, which showed diversity of cell fate commitment and location. Further analyses showed that these cell types are homologous to neurogenic cells in the mammalian brain, identified neurogenic commitment in proliferating radial glia and indicated that glutamatergic projection neurons are generated in the adult zebrafish telencephalon. Thus, we prospectively isolated adult newborn neurons from the adult zebrafish forebrain, identified markers for newborn and mature neurons in the adult brain, and revealed intrinsic heterogeneity among adult newborn neurons and their homology with mammalian adult neurogenic cell types.

[Avoidable mortality-a new indicator version for prevention reporting]. / Vermeidbare Sterblichkeit ­ Neufassung eines Indikators für die Präventionsberichterstattung.

BACKGROUND: "Avoidable mortality" is used as an indicator in health reporting. The indicator aggregates selected causes of death. In Germany two versions exist, both of which are no longer up to date. A new version is proposed. METHODS: The new version is based on preparatory work on the European level. The feasibility and plausibility of a common OECD Eurostat list are examined using official statistics data from Bavaria from 2016 to 2018. The analysis includes an examination of the variability over time and within the Bavarian administrative districts, as well as possible systematic errors through regional differences in coding behaviour or changes over time. RESULTS: The OECD Eurostat list can be implemented at the regional level with only minor modifications. The age-standardized avoidable mortality in Bavaria in 2018 is almost 23 deaths per 10,000 inhabitants, with preventable deaths by far outweighing treatable deaths. For men, the death rate due to avoidable causes is 30 per 10,000 male inhabitants, which is almost twice as high as that for women (16 per 10,000 female inhabitants). The regional findings on avoidable mortality are consistent with findings on regional health from other studies. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The results do not indicate a threat to reliability due to random fluctuation or systematic methodological errors. The new version is recommended for application in health reporting.

A prospective 10-year study of metal ceramic single crowns and fixed dental prosthesis retainers in private practice settings.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM: Metal ceramic restorations are widely used in prosthodontics, but long-term data on their clinical performance in private practice settings based on prospective trials are sparse. PURPOSE: This clinical trial was designed to provide realistic long-term survival rates for different outcomes related to tooth loss, crown loss, and metal ceramic defect. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Ninety-five participants were provided with 190 noble metal ceramic single crowns and 138 participants with 276 fixed dental prosthesis retainer crowns on vital posterior teeth. Follow-up examinations were scheduled 2 weeks after insertion, annually up to 8 years, and after 10 years. Kaplan-Meier survival analyses, Mantel-Cox logrank tests, and Cox regression analyses were conducted. RESULTS: Because of variations in the time of the last examinations, the maximum observation period was 12.1 years. For the primary outcome 'loss of crown or tooth', the Kaplan-Meier survival rate was 94.3% ±1.8% (standard error) at 8.0 years (last outcome event) for single crowns and 94.4% ±1.5% at 11.0 years for fixed dental prosthesis retainer crowns. The difference between the survival functions was not significant (P>.05). For the secondary outcome 'metal ceramic defect', the survival rate was 88.8% ±3.2% at 11.0 years for single crowns and 81.7% ±3.5% at 11.0 years for fixed dental prosthesis retainer crowns. In Cox regression models, the only significant covariates for the outcome event 'metal ceramic defect' were bruxism in the medical history (single crowns) and signs and symptoms of bruxism (fixed dental prosthesis retainer crowns) with hazard ratios of 3.065 (95% CI 1.063 - 8.832) and 2.554 (95% CI 1.307 - 4.992). CONCLUSIONS: Metal ceramic crowns provided in private practice settings show good longevity. Bruxism appears to indicate a risk for metal ceramic defects.

Preschool teachers' pedagogical content knowledge predicts willingness to scaffold early science learning.

BACKGROUND: The importance of diagnostic and scaffolding activities for early science learning has been shown consistently. However, preschool teachers scarcely engage in them. We developed an instrument to assess preschool teachers' willingness to engage in diagnostic and scaffolding activities in science learning situations and examined its relation with teachers' knowledge, beliefs and practice. AIMS: We validate an instrument to assess willingness to engage in scaffolding and diagnostic activities and study the interplay between willingness, learning beliefs, content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in the context of science learning, particularly block play. SAMPLE(S): A total of N = 151 preschool teachers from 41 kindergartens in Germany participated in our study. METHODS: Preschool teachers completed a questionnaire, which took approximately 1 hour of time. We drew a subsample of N = 73 teachers and observed their practice during a 30 min block play episode. RESULTS: With our instrument, we were able to distinguish between preschool teachers' willingness to diagnose and to scaffold. Preschool teachers' co-constructivist beliefs and PCK predicted willingness to engage in diagnosing, PCK also predicted willingness to engage in scaffolding. Associations between learning beliefs and practice were inconsistent. CONCLUSIONS: Our study highlights aspects of the association between preschool teachers' PCK and their willingness to engage in diagnosing and scaffolding. However, we found inconsistencies between preschool teachers' beliefs and practice, which call for further clarification.

Single-cell RNA sequencing unravels the transcriptional network underlying zebrafish retina regeneration.

In the lesioned zebrafish retina, Müller glia produce multipotent retinal progenitors that generate all retinal neurons, replacing lost cell types. To study the molecular mechanisms linking Müller glia reactivity to progenitor production and neuronal differentiation, we used single-cell RNA sequencing of Müller glia, progenitors and regenerated progeny from uninjured and light-lesioned retinae. We discover an injury-induced Müller glia differentiation trajectory that leads into a cell population with a hybrid identity expressing marker genes of Müller glia and progenitors. A glial self-renewal and a neurogenic trajectory depart from the hybrid cell population. We further observe that neurogenic progenitors progressively differentiate to generate retinal ganglion cells first and bipolar cells last, similar to the events observed during retinal development. Our work provides a comprehensive description of Müller glia and progenitor transcriptional changes and fate decisions in the regenerating retina, which are key to tailor cell differentiation and replacement therapies for retinal dystrophies in humans.

Foveal localization in non-exudative AMD using scanning laser polarimetry.

PURPOSE: To determine whether custom scanning laser polarimetry (SLP) images, differing in polarization content, can be used to accurately localize the fovea in the presence of non-exudative age-related macular degeneration (AMD). To determine whether alterations to the foveal structure in non-exudative AMD significantly disrupts the birefringent Henle fiber layer, responsible for the macular cross pattern in some SLP images. To determine whether phase retardation information, specifically color-coded information representing its magnitude and axis, allow better foveal localization than images including retardation amplitude only. METHODS: SLP images were acquired in 25 AMD subjects and 25 age-matched controls. Raw data were used to generate five custom image types differing in polarization content. The foveal location was marked by three graders in each image type for each subject. The difference in variability was compared between the AMD subjects and matched controls. We further determined whether the orientation of Henle fiber layer phase retardation improved localization in 10 subjects with the highest variability in images including only phase retardation amplitude. RESULTS: Images that differed in polarization content led to strikingly different visualizations of AMD pathology. The Henle fiber layer remained sufficiently intact to assist in fovea localization in all subjects but with more variability in the AMD group. For both the AMD and matched control group, images containing birefringence amplitude and orientation information reduced the amount of intragrader, intergrader, and interimage variability for estimating foveal location. CONCLUSIONS: The disruption in Henle fiber birefringence was evident in the eyes with AMD but nevertheless was sufficient to help in foveal localization despite macular pathology. Phase retardation amplitude and axis of orientation can be a useful tool in foveal localization in patients with AMD.

Fostering preservice teachers' expectancies and values towards computational thinking.

Theory: Digital technologies have become an integral part of everyday life that children are exposed to. Therefore, it is important for children to acquire an understanding of these technologies early on by teaching them computational thinking (CT) as a part of STEM. However, primary school teachers are often reluctant to teach CT. Expectancy-value theory suggests that motivational components play an important role in teaching and learning. Thus, one hindrance to teachers' willingness to teach CT might be their low expectancies of success and high emotional costs, e.g., anxiety towards CT. Thus, introducing preservice teachers to CT during their university years might be a promising way to support their expectancies and values, while simultaneously alleviating their emotional costs. Prior CT competences might contribute to these outcomes. Aims: We investigated whether a specifically designed seminar on CT affected preservice teachers' expectancies and values towards programming.Method: A total of 311 German primary school and special education preservice teachers took part in the study. The primary school preservice teachers received a seminar on CT and programming with low-threshold programming tasks, while the special education teachers served as a baseline group. The seminar was specifically designed to enhance expectancies and values and decrease emotional costs, following implications of research on expectancy-value theory. Results: The preservice teachers who visited the seminar gained higher expectancies and values towards CT and programming compared to the baseline group. Moreover, their emotional costs decreased. CT was positively related to change in expectancies and values and negatively related to emotional costs. Discussion: Interventions with low-threshold programming tasks can support primary school preservice teachers in finding trust in their abilities and values towards CT. Moreover, their anxiety towards CT and programming can be alleviated. Thus, first steps in preparing preservice teachers to teach CT in their future classrooms can be taken in university.

Visual Function is Gradually Restored During Retina Regeneration in Adult Zebrafish.

In comparison to mammals, zebrafish are able to regenerate many organs and tissues, including the central nervous system (CNS). Within the CNS-derived neural retina, light lesions result in a loss of photoreceptors and the subsequent activation of Müller glia, the retinal stem cells. Müller glia-derived progenitors differentiate and eventually restore the anatomical tissue architecture within 4 weeks. However, little is known about how light lesions impair vision functionally, as well as how and to what extent visual function is restored during the course of regeneration, in particular in adult animals. Here, we applied quantitative behavioral assays to assess restoration of visual function during homeostasis and regeneration in adult zebrafish. We developed a novel vision-dependent social preference test, and show that vision is massively impaired early after lesion, but is restored to pre-lesion levels within 7 days after lesion. Furthermore, we employed a quantitative optokinetic response assay with different degrees of difficulty, similar to vision tests in humans. We found that vision for easy conditions with high contrast and low level of detail, as well as color vision, was restored around 7-10 days post lesion. Vision under more demanding conditions, with low contrast and high level of detail, was regained only later from 14 days post lesion onwards. Taken together, we conclude that vision based on contrast sensitivity, spatial resolution and the perception of colors is restored after light lesion in adult zebrafish in a gradual manner.

Measuring preschool children's knowledge of the principle of static equilibrium in the context of building blocks: Validation of a test instrument.

BACKGROUND: Preschoolers' knowledge of the principle of static equilibrium is an important research focus for understanding children's science content knowledge. Hitherto studies have mainly used behavioural observation with small samples. Thus, extending these studies with a validated test instrument is desirable. AIMS: The aim was to validate an instrument (the Centre-of-Mass Test), which is concerned with preschoolers' knowledge of the principle of static equilibrium, using item response theory. In Study 1, the construct structure was tested, and in Study 2, its relationship with stabilities of symmetrical blocks, figural reasoning, figural perception, mental rotation, level of interest, self-concept, motivation, and language capacity was investigated. SAMPLES: A total of 217 five- and six-year-old children participated in Study 1 and 166 five- and six-year-old children in Study 2. METHODS: All tests were administered as paper-pencil picture tests in groups and single interviews. RESULTS: In Study 1, the Centre-of-Mass Test's conformity with a 1PL-testlet model with an overall knowledge of static equilibrium and with two subtests, estimation of stable and unstable constructions, was confirmed. Using a 95% binomial distribution, children were categorized into three knowledge categories: geometrical-centre, centre-of-mass, and undifferentiated knowledge. In Study 2, knowledge of the principle of static equilibrium showed positive correlations with figural perception and reasoning, language capacity, and estimation of the stabilities of symmetrical objects. CONCLUSIONS: The Centre-of-Mass Test measures knowledge of the principle of static equilibrium as a unidimensional construct and mirrors preschoolers' estimations found in previous studies. The acquisition of a more sophisticated static equilibrium knowledge is related to spatial knowledge and language capacity.

The Impact of a Construction Play on 5- to 6-Year-Old Children's Reasoning About Stability.

THEORY: Young children have an understanding of basic science concepts such as stability, yet their theoretical assumptions are often not concerned with stability. The literature on theory theory and theory-evidence coordination suggests that children construct intuitive theories about their environment which can be adjusted in the face of counterevidence that cannot be assimilated into the prior theory. With increasing age, children acquire a Center theory when balancing objects and try to balance every object at their middle, succeeding with symmetrical objects. Later, they acquire the basic science concept of stability through learning that the weight distribution of an object is of importance. Thus, they acquire a Mass theory and succeed in balancing asymmetrical objects as well. Fluid and crystallized intelligence might contribute to children's acquisition of Mass theory. Moreover, their Mass theory might be supported by implementing a playful intervention including (a) material scaffolds and (b) verbal scaffolds. AIMS: We investigated which theories children have about stability and whether these theories can be adjusted to Mass theory by implementing a playful intervention. METHOD: A total of 183 5- to 6-year-old children took part in the study with a pre-post-follow-up intervention design. Children's Mass theory was assessed with an interview in which children explained constructions' stabilities. The children received a playful intervention with two differing degrees of scaffolding (material scaffolds or material + verbal scaffolds) or no scaffolding. RESULTS: At first few children used a Mass theory to explain their reasoning. However, after being confronted with counterevidence for the asymmetrical constructions, children changed their explanation and applied a Mass theory. More children in the play group with the highest degree of scaffolding, i.e., material + verbal scaffolds, acquired a Mass theory compared to the other groups. Fluid as well as crystallized intelligence contributed to children's acquisition of a Mass theory. DISCUSSION: Counterevidence can support children in their acquisition of a Mass theory. A playful intervention with scaffolding supports children even more.

Determination of foveal location using scanning laser polarimetry.

The fovea is the retinal location responsible for our most acute vision. There are several methods used to localize the fovea, but the fovea is not always easily identifiable. Landmarks used to determine the foveal location are variable in normal subjects and localization becomes even more difficult in instances of retinal disease. In normal subjects, the photoreceptor axons that make up the Henle fiber layer are cylindrical and the radial orientation of these fibers is centered on the fovea. The Henle fiber layer exhibits form birefringence, which predictably changes polarized light in scanning laser polarimetry imaging. In this study 3 graders were able to repeatably identify the fovea in 35 normal subjects using near infrared image types with differing polarization content. There was little intra-grader, inter-grader, and inter-image variability in the graded foveal position for 5 of the 6 image types examined, with accuracy sufficient for clinical purposes. This study demonstrates that scanning laser polarimetry imaging can localize the fovea by using structural properties inherent in the central macula.

Mutating the tight-dimer interface of dihydrodipicolinate synthase disrupts the enzyme quaternary structure: toward a monomeric enzyme.

Dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHDPS) is a tetrameric enzyme that is the first enzyme unique to the ( S)-lysine biosynthetic pathway in plants and bacteria. Previous studies have looked at the important role of Tyr107, an amino acid residue located at the tight-dimer interface between two monomers, in participating in a catalytic triad of residues during catalysis. In this study, we examine the importance of this residue in determining the quaternary structure of the DHDPS enzyme. The Tyr107 residue was mutated to tryptophan, and structural, biophysical, and kinetic studies were carried out on the mutant enzyme. These revealed that while the solid-state structure of the mutant enzyme was largely unchanged, as judged by X-ray crystallography, it exists as a mixture of primarily monomer and tetramer in solution, as determined by analytical ultracentrifugation, size-exclusion chromatography, and mass spectrometry. The catalytic ability of the DHDPS enzyme was reduced by the mutation, which also allowed the adventitious binding of alpha-ketoglutarate to the active site. A reduction in the apparent melting temperature of the mutant enzyme was observed. Thus, the tetrameric quaternary structure of DHDPS is critical to controlling specificity, heat stability, and intrinsic activity.

Recurrent suprachoroidal dislocation of an anterior chamber intraocular lens.

We present a patient with a history of posterior chamber intraocular lens (PC IOL) implantation and trabeculotomy 9 years previously who recently had IOL exchange for an angle-based anterior chamber IOL. Twenty-four hours after the exchange, he was referred to us with hypotony and "loss" of the IOL. Ultrasound revealed a rigid choroidal detachment and echoes suggestive of a suprachoroidally dislocated IOL. Anterior vitrectomy and resuturing of the incision were performed. Subsequently, the IOL repeatedly migrated in and out of the suprachoroidal space, allowing atraumatic removal. Angle-based IOL implementation should be avoided in eyes with a history of trabeculotomy or cyclodialysis.

The Restorative Value of the Urban Environment: A Systematic Review of the Existing Literature.

BACKGROUND: Stress poses a major issue in our modern society, making restoration an important research focus. Restoration likelihood has mostly been observed in nature, which was compared with urban environments that have little restorative potential, eg, industrial areas. However, many people reside in and need to find restoration in cities. The main aim of this review is to summarize research that has focused on investigating restoration possibilities in urban environments and the environmental elements interacting with the restoration likelihood of an urban environment. METHOD: This review focuses on studies addressing the topic of restoration possibilities in urban settings in built and human-made natural urban environments. The studies were searched via Google Scholar, PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, and PSYNDEX. All studies concerned with restoration in urban environments were included. However, studies concerned with nonoriginal data, solely investigating effects of natural environments or treating urban environments as a control for restoration in nature, were excluded from the review. Overall, 39 studies corresponded to the criteria and were included. RESULTS: Natural elements in urban environments have a restorative potential and can increase the restorativeness of urban settings. Furthermore, built urban environments vary in their restorative potential, but promising results have been uncovered as well. Architectural elements, cultural, and leisure areas had a restorative value, whereas the findings on streets and residential areas differ. In sum, many urban locations can have restorative effects, but these effects may be influenced by factors such as cultural background, age, social components, and individual dispositions. DISCUSSION: Certain urban environments hold a restorative potential. However, the literature on restoration in urban environments is still quite scarce and therefore has been of little practical use. Even though applying the findings to real-life environments is desirable, it might prove difficult, considering the overall sparse evidence. More research on the predictors of restoration likelihood (eg, social factors), generational and cultural differences, and comparisons between natural and urban environments is recommended.

Deaths amenable to health care: Converging trends in the EU?

Amenable mortality has been recently included in the joint monitoring tool by the European Commission and Member States to assess a country's health system performance. Amenable deaths are premature deaths, which should not have occurred at this stage in the light of timely and effective health care. This paper recalculated annual amenable mortality rates for 28EU countries and the EU for the period 1994-2013 based on the recently published list of deaths amenable to health care by Eurostat. Thereby, it offers a consistent calculation of amenable mortality across European Member States and provides time series data on amenable mortality. In addition, a sensitivity analysis of the amenable mortality indicator for varying age limits and attributional weights of circulatory system diseases is carried out. While large improvements were made in reducing amenable deaths in all European countries, great variations persist among Member States. Most of the decreases in amenable mortality are explained by a substantial reduction of deaths due to circulatory system diseases. In addition, even in countries with good national performance on amenable mortality, sub-national analysis shows that great regional disparities exist. The sensitivity analysis revealed that for the large majority of countries results are stable across different attributional weights used for ischaemic heart diseases and cerebrovascular diseases.

Corneal calcification after chemical eye burns caused by eye drops containing phosphate buffer.

PURPOSE: Chemical burns with calcium containing corrosives as well as irrigation with phosphate buffer solutions after eye burns bear the risk of corneal calcification. The aim of this study was to evaluate the correlation between the occurrence of corneal calcification after chemical injuries and the usage of phosphate buffer containing local therapeutics. METHODS: We reviewed the data of 179 patients who have been treated in the University Eye Clinic Aachen, Germany, between 1941 and 2000. Only when the corrosive did not contain calcium and when the initial irrigating solution did not contain phosphate buffer, respectively, were patients included in the study. The cases were analyse, if the patient was treated with phosphate buffer containing eye drops/ointment during the first 7 days of hospitalization or as an out-patient, and if corneal calcification was visible by slit-lamp examination during the follow-up. Statistical analysis was performed using Fischer's exact test. RESULTS: 152 eyes were included. From 63 eyes treated with phosphate buffer containing eye drops, 31 eyes (49%) developed corneal calcification. From 89 eyes treated without phosphate buffer containing eye drops, only 23 eyes (26%) developed corneal calcification. The two-sided p-value of Fischer's exact test is 0.0036. CONCLUSION: During follow-up after chemical eye burns, eye drops containing phosphate buffer double the risk of corneal calcification. We recommend avoiding these agents in order to prevent the burned cornea from additional opacity. Substances containing phosphate buffer are listed in this article.

Improved contrast of peripapillary hyperpigmentation using polarization analysis.

PURPOSE: To improve detection and quantification of peripapillary hyperpigmentation, associated with aging, open-angle glaucoma, and age-related macular degeneration. METHODS: A computational approach was implemented with a readily available polarimeter used in glaucoma diagnosis, a nerve fiber analyzer (GDx; Laser Diagnostic Technologies, San Diego, CA). Using near-infrared illumination at each of 20 input polarizations, a series of image pairs was digitized. One image is made from the light returning from the eye that is polarized parallel to the input light, and the other image is made from the light that is rotated by 90 degrees from the input polarization. Using raw data from these 40 images, and a simplified model of ocular polarization properties, images were computed based on their polarization content. Regions of hyperpigmentation, selected using stereo color fundus photographs, were quantified in three types of polarimetry images: (1) a depolarized light image resulting mainly from multiply scattered light; (2) an average image that is typical of confocal images; and (3) a birefringence image. Measurements on versus off hyperpigmentation were made in nine persons with suspected glaucoma or patients with primary open-angle glaucoma, selected to have clinically visible hyperpigmentation. RESULTS: In the depolarized light images, hyperpigmented regions were significantly brighter than comparison areas (P < 0.0425)-that is, had more scattered light and therefore more contrast (P < 0.037) than did color or other polarimetric images. CONCLUSIONS: With this polarimetry imaging method, subretinal tissues such as those with hyperpigmentation can be visualized with increased contrast.

Imaging polarimetry in central serous chorioretinopathy.

PURPOSE: To evaluate a noninvasive technique to detect the leakage point of central serous chorioretinopathy (CSR), using a polarimetry method. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: Institutional practice. PATIENTS: We examined 30 eyes of 30 patients with CSR. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Polarimetry images were recorded using the GDx-N (Laser Diagnostic Technologies). We computed four images that differed in their polarization content: a depolarized light image, an average reflectance image, a parallel polarized light image, and a birefringence image. Each polarimetry image was compared with abnormalities seen on fluorescein angiography. RESULTS: In all eyes, leakage area could be clearly visualized as a bright area in the depolarized light images. Michelson contrasts for the leakage areas were 0.58 +/- 0.28 in the depolarized light images, 0.17 +/- 0.11 in the average reflectance images, 0.09 +/- 0.09 in the parallel polarized light images, and 0.11 +/- 0.21 in the birefringence images from the same raw data. Michelson contrasts in depolarized light images were significantly higher than for the other three images (P < .0001, for all tests, paired t test). The fluid accumulated in the retina was well-visualized in the average and parallel polarized light images. CONCLUSIONS: Polarization-sensitive imaging could readily localize the leakage point and area of fluid in CSR. This may assist with the rapid, noninvasive assessment of CSR.

Polarimetric imaging and blood vessel quantification.

We applied a polarimetric analysis to retinal imaging, to examine the potential improvement in characterizing blood vessels. To minimize the reflection artifact of the superficial wall of the blood vessel, we computed depolarized light images by removing the polarization retaining light reaching the instrument. These depolarized light images were compared to images from the average of all the light. Michelson contrast was computed for the vessel profiles across arteries and veins, and was higher for the depolarized light images. Depolarized light images provide one step towards improving the characterization of retinal blood vessels.