Nucleoside transporter gene expression in wild-type and mENT1 knockout mice.

Owing to the overlapping and redundant roles of the seven mammalian nucleoside transporters (NTs), which belong to two protein families (ENTs and CNTs), the physiological importance of individual NTs has been difficult to assess. Mice that have NT genes knocked out can be a valuable tool in gaining an understanding of the NT proteins. We have generated a strain of mice that is homozygous for a disruption mutation between exons 2 and 3 of the mouse equilibrative nucleoside transporter, mENT1. We have undertaken a quantitative survey of NT gene expression in 10 tissues, as well as microarray analysis of heart and kidney, from wild-type and mENT1 knockout mice. Rather than a consistent change in expression of NT genes in all tissues of mENT1 knockout mice, a complex pattern of changes was found. Some genes, such as those encoding mCNT1 and mCNT3 in colon tissue, exhibited increased expression, whereas other genes, such as those encoding mCNT2 and mENT4 in lung tissue, exhibited decreased expression. Although mCNT3 has been shown to be important in human and rat kidney tissue, we were unable to detect mCNT3 transcripts in the kidney of either the wild-type or mENT1 knockout mice, suggesting differences in renal nucleoside resorption between species.

Defining the Na+/H+ exchanger NHE1 interactome in triple-negative breast cancer cells.

Mounting evidence supports a major role for the Na+/H+ exchanger NHE1 in cancer progression and metastasis. NHE1 is hyperactive at the onset of oncogenic transformation, resulting in intracellular alkalinization and extracellular microenvironmental acidification. These conditions promote invasion and facilitate metastasis. However, the signal pathways governing the regulation of exchanger activity are still unclear. This is especially important in the aggressively metastatic, triple-negative basal breast cancer subtype. We used affinity chromatography followed by mass spectrometry to identify novel and putative interaction partners of NHE1 in MDA-MB-231 triple-negative breast cancer cells. NHE1 associated with several types of proteins including cytoskeletal proteins and chaperones. We validated protein interactions by co-immunoprecipitation for: 14-3-3, AKT, α-enolase, CHP1, HSP70 and HSP90. Additionally, we used The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) to study NHE1 gene expression in primary patient breast tumours versus adjacent normal tissue. NHE1 expression was elevated in breast tumour samples and, when broken down by breast cancer subtype, NHE1 gene expression was significantly lower in tumours of the basal subtype compared to luminal and HER2+ subtypes. Reverse phase protein array (RPPA) analysis showed that NHE1 expression positively correlated with p90RSK expression in basal, but not luminal, primary tumours. Other proteins were negatively correlated with NHE1 expression in basal breast cancer tumours. Taken together, our data provides the first insight into the signalling molecules that form the NHE1 interactome in triple-negative breast cancer cells. These results will focus our search for novel targeted therapies.

KR-33028, a potent inhibitor of the Na+/H+ exchanger NHE1, suppresses metastatic potential of triple-negative breast cancer cells.

Hyper-activation of the Na+/H+ exchanger NHE1 occurs at the onset of oncogenic transformation and plays a critical role in breast cancer carcinogenesis. Dysregulation of NHE1 activity results in intracellular alkalinization and the acidification of the extracellular tumor microenvironment that promotes metastasis. Hence, the use of chemical inhibitors of NHE1 as chemotherapeutic agents is an alluring prospect. We previously demonstrated that two structurally different NHE1 inhibitors, EMD87580 [(2-methyl-4,5-di-(methylsulfonyl)-benzoyl)-guanidine], and HMA [5-(N,N-hexamethylene)-amiloride], were effective as co-adjuvants to potentiate paclitaxel-mediated cytotoxic chemotherapy in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells. Both these drugs, however, had reduced or minimal anti-cancer effects when used alone. Here, we tested KR-33028 (4-cyano (benzo[b]thiophene-2-carbonyl)guanidine), a potent and selective inhibitor of NHE1, to determine its efficacy in inhibition of metastatic potential of TNBC cells. In highly invasive MDA-MB-231, moderately invasive MDA-MB-468, and lowly invasive Hs578T TNBC cells, KR-33028 considerably reduced rates of cell migration and anchorage-independent colony growth. Invasion of MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells through extracellular matrix was also dramatically decreased in response to KR-33028. We further tested the effect of KR-33028 on MDA-MB-231 cells lacking NHE1 expression (231koNHE1); no differences were observed between untreated control and KR-33028-treated 231koNHE1 cells. Taken together, our results highlight the in vitro efficacy of KR-33028-mediated NHE1 inhibition on limiting cellular functions that are predictive of metastasis in vivo. We suggest that targeting NHE1 in the development of novel chemotherapeutics could be highly effective in combatting triple-negative breast cancer and that KR-33028 is potentially useful in prevention of metastasis.

Assessing Na+/H+ exchange and cell effector functionality in metastatic breast cancer.

Metastasis is the leading cause of mortality in patients with breast cancer. In triple-negative breast cancer, high recurrence rates, increased invasive capacity of cells, and their aggressive ability to metastasize at secondary sites dictate patient survival. The Na+/H+ exchanger isoform 1 (NHE1) plays a critical role in controlling the metastatic potential of these cells. Its activity results in an elevation of intracellular pH and in extracellular acidification, a key step in the establishment of the tumor microenvironment. Here, we describe assays for characterization of Na+/H+ exchanger activity and its related downstream physiological effects on triple-negative breast cancer cells. Na+/H+ exchanger activity can be routinely and rapidly measured in live cells with a fluorometric assay that assesses changes in intracellular pH. Characterization of downstream cell effector function as a result of Na+/H+ exchanger activation can be evaluated by measuring directed cell migration and invasion. Cell migration is assessed with wound-healing assays, where a gap is introduced in a confluent monolayer of cells and the rate of gap closure is measured over time. Cell invasion is assessed in the short-term by transwell invasion assays that track cell movement through an extracellular matrix. Long-term invasiveness, growth and proliferation can be assessed with 3-D invasion assays using transwell inserts fitted with specialized scaffolds optimized for 3-D cell culture. Taken together these assays provide powerful tools for testing the effects of altering Na+/H+ exchanger activity with chemical inhibition on the metastatic capacity of breast cancer cells.

Na+/H+ exchanger NHE1 regulation modulates metastatic potential and epithelial-mesenchymal transition of triple-negative breast cancer cells.

In triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), the high recurrence rate, increased invasion and aggressive metastatic formation dictate patient survival. We previously demonstrated a critical role for the Na+/H+ exchanger isoform 1 (NHE1) in controlling metastasis of triple-negative cells. Here, we investigated the effect of changes to three regulatory loci of NHE1. Two via the Ras/Raf/ERK/p90RSK pathway: p90RSK/14-3-3 (S703A) and ERK1/2 (S766,770,771A, SSSA) and a third via a calmodulin-binding domain (K641,R643,645,647E, 1K3R4E). MDA-MB-231 cells with a mutation at the p90RSK site (S703A-NHE1) changed from a wild-type mesenchymal morphology to a smaller epithelial-like phenotype with a loss of expression of mesenchymal marker vimentin. S703A cells also had reduced metastatic potential and markedly decreased rates of migration, invasion, spheroid growth, anchorage-dependent and soft agar colony formation. Similarly, BI-D1870, a specific inhibitor of p90RSK, significantly inhibited the metastatic potential of highly invasive MDA-MB-231 and moderately invasive MDA-MB-468 TNBC cells, but was minimally effective in non-invasive Hs578T TNBC cells. In contrast, invasion and spheroid growth were unaffected in cells containing NHE1 with mutations interfering with its activation by ERK1/2 (SSSA), though rates of migration and colony formation were reduced. Cells with a constitutive activation of NHE1 via the 1K3R4E mutation exhibited higher rates of migration, invasion, and spheroid growth. Taken together, our data demonstrate the critical role of NHE1 in metastasis, and suggest a novel link between NHE1 and the expression and cytosolic organization of vimentin, a key factor in epithelial-mesenchymal transition, that is dependent on p90RSK/14-3-3-mediated activation of the exchanger.

The Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger (NHE1) as a novel co-adjuvant target in paclitaxel therapy of triple-negative breast cancer cells.

Dysregulation of Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger isoform one (NHE1) activity is a hallmark of cells undergoing tumorigenesis and metastasis, the leading cause of patient mortality. The acidic tumor microenvironment is thought to facilitate the development of resistance to chemotherapy drugs and to promote extracellular matrix remodeling leading to metastasis. Here, we investigated NHE1 as a co-adjuvant target in paclitaxel chemotherapy of metastatic breast cancer. We generated a stable NHE1-knockout of the highly invasive, triple-negative, MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. The NHE1-knockout cells proliferated comparably to parental cells, but had markedly lower rates of migration and invasion in vitro. In vivo xenograft tumor growth in athymic nude mice was also dramatically decreased compared to parental MDA-MB-231 cells. Loss of NHE1 expression also increased the susceptibility of knockout cells to paclitaxel-mediated cell death. NHE1 inhibition, in combination with paclitaxel, resulted in a dramatic decrease in viability, and migratory and invasive potential of triple-negative breast cancer cells, but not in hormone receptor-positive, luminal MCF7 cells. Our data suggest that NHE1 is critical in triple-negative breast cancer metastasis, and its chemical inhibition boosts the efficacy of paclitaxel in vitro, highlighting NHE1 as a novel, potential co-adjuvant target in breast cancer chemotherapy.