Selection on Mitochondrial Variants Occurs between and within Individuals in an Expanding Invasion.

Mitochondria are critical for life, yet their underlying evolutionary biology is poorly understood. In particular, little is known about interaction between two levels of evolution: between individuals and within individuals (competition between cells, mitochondria or mitochondrial DNA molecules). Rapid evolution is suspected to occur frequently in mitochondrial DNA, whose maternal inheritance predisposes advantageous mutations to sweep rapidly though populations. Rapid evolution is also predicted in response to changed selection regimes after species invasion or removal of pathogens or competitors. Here, using empirical and simulated data from a model invasive bird species, we provide the first demonstration of rapid selection on the mitochondrial genome within individuals in the wild. Further, we show differences in mitochondrial DNA copy number associated with competing genetic variants, which may provide a mechanism for selection. We provide evidence for three rarely documented phenomena: selection associated with mitochondrial DNA abundance, selection on the mitochondrial control region, and contemporary selection during invasion.

Quantum computing: a new paradigm for ecology.

A global technology arms race is underway to build evermore powerful and precise quantum computers. Quantum computers have the potential to tackle certain quantitative problems quicker than classical computers. The current focus of quantum computing is on pushing the boundaries of fundamental quantum information and commercial applications in industrial sectors, financial services, and other profit-led sectors, particularly where improvements in optimisation and sampling can improve increased economic return. We believe that ecologists could exploit the computational power of quantum computers because the statistical approaches commonly used in ecology already have proven pathways on quantum computers. Moreover, quantum computing could ultimately leapfrog our understanding of complex ecological systems, if the hardware, opportunity, and creativity of quantitative ecologists all align.

Mitochondrial DNA offers unique insights into invasion history of the common starling.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) can be a powerful genetic marker for tracing origins and history of invasive populations. Here, we use mtDNA to address questions relevant to the understanding of invasion pathways of common starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) into Western Australia (WA) and discuss the utility of this marker to provide information useful to invasive species management. Mitochondrial sequence data indicate two geographically restricted genetic groups within Australia. Evidence of dispersal from genetically distinct sources outside the sampled range of starlings in Australia suggests increased vigilance by management agencies may be required to prevent further incursions from widely separated localities. Overall, genetic diversity in Australia was lower than in samples from the native range. Within Australia, genetic diversity was lowest in the most recently colonized area in the west, indicating that demographic bottlenecks have occurred in this area. Evidence of restricted dispersal between localities on the edge of the range expansion (ERE) in WA and other Australian sampling localities suggests that localized control within the ERE may be effective in preventing further range expansion. Signatures of spatial and demographic expansion are present in mismatch analyses from sampling localities located at the ERE, but neutrality indices did not support this finding, suggesting that the former may be more sensitive to recent expansion. Additionally, mismatch analyses support the presence of admixture, which is likely to have occurred pre-introduction. We compare our findings with those from a microsatellite study of the same samples and discuss how the mtDNA analyses used here offer valuable and unique insights into the invasion history of introduced species.

Invasive species can't cover their tracks: using microsatellites to assist management of starling (Sturnus vulgaris) populations in Western Australia.

Invasive species are known to cause environmental and economic damage, requiring management by control agencies worldwide. These species often become well established in new environments long before their detection, resulting in a lack of knowledge regarding their history and dynamics. When new invasions are discovered, information regarding the source and pathway of the invasion, and the degree of connectivity with other populations can greatly benefit management strategies. Here we use invasive common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) populations from Australia to demonstrate that genetic techniques can provide this information to aid management, even when applied to highly vagile species over continental scales. Analysis of data from 11 microsatellites in 662 individuals sampled at 17 localities across their introduced range in Australia revealed four populations. One population consisted of all sampling sites from the expansion front in Western Australia, where control efforts are focused. Despite evidence of genetic exchange over both contemporary and historical timescales, gene flow is low between this population and all three more easterly populations. This suggests that localized control of starlings on the expansion front may be an achievable goal and the long-standing practice of targeting select proximal eastern source populations may be ineffective on its own. However, even with low levels of gene flow, successful control of starlings on the expansion front will require vigilance, and genetic monitoring of this population can provide essential information to managers. The techniques used here are broadly applicable to invasive populations worldwide.

Ecological applications of near infrared reflectance spectroscopy - a tool for rapid, cost-effective prediction of the composition of plant and animal tissues and aspects of animal performance.

Many ecological studies rely heavily on chemical analysis of plant and animal tissues. Often, there is limited time and money to perform all the required analyses and this can result in less than ideal sampling schemes and poor levels of replication. Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) can relieve these constraints because it can provide quick, non-destructive and quantitative analyses of an enormous range of organic constituents of plant and animal tissues. Near infrared spectra depend on the number and type of C[Formula: see text]H, N[Formula: see text]H and O[Formula: see text]H bonds in the material being analyzed. The spectral features are then combined with reliable compositional or functional analyses of the material in a predictive statistical model. This model is then used to predict the composition of new or unknown samples. NIRS can be used to analyze some specific elements (indirectly - e.g., N as protein) or well-defined compounds (e.g., starch) or more complex, poorly defined attributes of substances (e.g., fiber, animal food intake) have also been successfully modeled with NIRS technology. The accuracy and precision of the reference values for the calibration data set in part determines the quality of the predictions made by NIRS. However, NIRS analyses are often more precise than standard laboratory assays. The use of NIRS is not restricted to the simple determination of quantities of known compounds, but can also be used to discriminate between complex mixtures and to identify important compounds affecting attributes of interest. Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy is widely accepted for compositional and functional analyses in agriculture and manufacturing but its utility has not yet been recognized by the majority of ecologists conducting similar analyses. This paper aims to stimulate interest in NIRS and to illustrate some of the enormous variety of uses to which it can be put. We emphasize that care must be taken in the calibration stage to prevent propagation of poor analytical work through NIRS, but, used properly, NIRS offers ecologists enormous analytical power.

How does a carnivore guild utilise a substantial but unpredictable anthropogenic food source? Scavenging on hunter-shot ungulate carcasses by wild dogs/dingoes, red foxes and feral cats in south-eastern Australia revealed by camera traps.

There is much interest in understanding how anthropogenic food resources subsidise carnivore populations. Carcasses of hunter-shot ungulates are a potentially substantial food source for mammalian carnivores. The sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) is a large (≥ 150 kg) exotic ungulate that can be hunted throughout the year in south-eastern Australia, and hunters are not required to remove or bury carcasses. We investigated how wild dogs/dingoes and their hybrids (Canis lupus familiaris/dingo), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and feral cats (Felis catus) utilised sambar deer carcasses during the peak hunting seasons (i.e. winter and spring). We placed carcasses at 1-km intervals along each of six transects that extended 4-km into forest from farm boundaries. Visits to carcasses were monitored using camera traps, and the rate of change in edible biomass estimated at ∼ 14-day intervals. Wild dogs and foxes fed on 70% and 60% of 30 carcasses, respectively, but feral cats seldom (10%) fed on carcasses. Spatial and temporal patterns of visits to carcasses were consistent with the hypothesis that foxes avoid wild dogs. Wild dog activity peaked at carcasses 2 and 3 km from farms, a likely legacy of wild dog control, whereas fox activity peaked at carcasses 0 and 4 km from farms. Wild dog activity peaked at dawn and dusk, whereas nearly all fox activity occurred after dusk and before dawn. Neither wild dogs nor foxes remained at carcasses for long periods and the amount of feeding activity by either species was a less important predictor of the loss of edible biomass than season. Reasons for the low impacts of wild dogs and foxes on sambar deer carcass biomass include the spatially and temporally unpredictable distribution of carcasses in the landscape, the rapid rate of edible biomass decomposition in warm periods, low wild dog densities and the availability of alternative food resources.

Evaluation of medetomidine-ketamine and medetomidine-ketamine-butorphanol for the field anesthesia of free-ranging dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Australia.

Abstract We report the clinical course and physiologic and anesthetic data for a case series of 76 free-ranging dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) chemically restrained, by remote injection from a helicopter, in the rangelands of Western Australia and South Australia, 2008-11, to attach satellite-tracking collars. Fifty-five camels were successfully anesthetized using medetomidine-ketamine (MK, n=27) and medetomidine-ketamine-butorphanol (MKB, n=28); the induction of anesthesia in 21 animals was considered unsuccessful. To produce reliable anesthesia for MK, medetomidine was administered at 0.22 mg/kg (± SD=0.05) and ketamine at 2.54 mg/kg (± 0.56), and for MKB, medetomidine was administered at 0.12 mg/kg (± 0.05), ketamine at 2.3 mg/kg (± 0.39), and butorphanol at 0.05 mg/kg (± 0.02). Median time-to-recumbency for MKB (8.5 min) was 2.5 min shorter than for MK (11 min) (P=0.13). For MK, the reversal atipamezole was administered at 0.24 mg/kg (± 0.10), and for MKB, atipamezole was administered at 0.23 mg/kg (± 0.13) and naltrexone at 0.17 mg/kg (± 0.16). Median time-to-recovery was 1 min shorter for MK (5 min) than MKB (6 min; P=0.02). Physiologic parameters during recumbency were not clinically different between the two regimes. Both regimes were suitable to safely anesthetize free-ranging camels; however, further investigation is required to find the safest, most consistent, and logistically practical combination.

Salmonella infection in a remote, isolated wild pig population.

Although wild pig populations are known to sometimes be infected by Salmonella, the situation in Australia has received little attention and few population-based, planned studies have been conducted. Understanding the distribution of Salmonella infections within wild pig populations allows the potential hazard posed to co-grazing livestock to be assessed. We sampled a remote and isolated wild pig population in northwestern Australia. Faecal and mesenteric lymph node samples were collected from 651 wild pigs at 93 locations and cultured for Salmonella. The population sampled was typical of wild pig populations in tropical areas of Australia, and sampling occurred approximately halfway through the population's breeding season (38% of the 229 adult females were pregnant and 35% were lactating). Overall, the prevalence of Salmonella infection based on culture of 546 freshly collected faecal samples was 36.3% (95% CI 32.1-40.7%), and based on culture of mesenteric lymph nodes was 11.9% (95% CI, 9.4-15.0%). A total of 39 serovars (139 isolates) were identified--29 in faecal samples and 24 in lymph node samples--however neither Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium nor Salmonella Cholerasuis were isolated. There was a significant (p<0.0001) disagreement between faecal and lymph node samples with respect to Salmonella isolation, with isolation more likely from faecal samples. Prevalence differed between age classes, with piglets being less likely to be faecal-positive but more likely to be lymph node positive than adults. The distribution of faecal-positive pigs was spatially structured, with spatial clusters being identified. Study results suggest that this population of wild pigs is highly endemic for Salmonella, and that Salmonella is transmitted from older to younger pigs, perhaps associated with landscape features such as water features. This might have implications for infection of co-grazing livestock within this environment.

Field immobilization of feral 'Judas' donkeys (Equus asinus) by remote injection of medetomidine and ketamine and antagonism with atipamezole.

The Judas technique is a method used for landscape control of feral donkeys (Equus asinus) in northern Australia. Central to the success of any Judas program is the safe, efficient, and humane attachment of the telemetry device. For feral donkeys, this involves the use of field immobilization. We examine the replacement of the current chemical capture agent, succinylcholine, with contemporary immobilization agents to achieve positive animal welfare outcomes. A combination of medetomidine and ketamine delivered by remote injection from a helicopter was used to capture 14 free-ranging feral donkeys for the fitting of telemetry collars in Western Australia in November 2010. Dose rates of 0.14 mg/kg medetomidine and 4.1 mg/kg ketamine were appropriate to immobilize animals in 9 min (± SD = 3). Mean recovery time (total time in recumbency) was 21 min (± 14). All animals recovered uneventfully after being administered atipamezole, a specific antagonist of medetomidine, intramuscularly at 0.35 mg/kg. Physiologic parameters were recorded during recumbency, with environment-related hyperthermia being the only abnormality recognized. No significant complications were encountered, and this drug combination represents an efficient approach to capturing wild donkeys. This new method allows a rapid, safe, cost-effective approach to the immobilization of feral donkeys for use as Judas animals. This drug combination will replace the relatively inhumane succinylcholine for the field immobilization of feral donkeys.

Integrating survey and molecular approaches to better understand wildlife disease ecology.

Infectious wildlife diseases have enormous global impacts, leading to human pandemics, global biodiversity declines and socio-economic hardship. Understanding how infection persists and is transmitted in wildlife is critical for managing diseases, but our understanding is limited. Our study aim was to better understand how infectious disease persists in wildlife populations by integrating genetics, ecology and epidemiology approaches. Specifically, we aimed to determine whether environmental or host factors were stronger drivers of Salmonella persistence or transmission within a remote and isolated wild pig (Sus scrofa) population. We determined the Salmonella infection status of wild pigs. Salmonella isolates were genotyped and a range of data was collected on putative risk factors for Salmonella transmission. We a priori identified several plausible biological hypotheses for Salmonella prevalence (cross sectional study design) versus transmission (molecular case series study design) and fit the data to these models. There were 543 wild pig Salmonella observations, sampled at 93 unique locations. Salmonella prevalence was 41% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 37-45%). The median Salmonella DICE coefficient (or Salmonella genetic similarity) was 52% (interquartile range [IQR]: 42-62%). Using the traditional cross sectional prevalence study design, the only supported model was based on the hypothesis that abundance of available ecological resources determines Salmonella prevalence in wild pigs. In the molecular study design, spatial proximity and herd membership as well as some individual risk factors (sex, condition score and relative density) determined transmission between pigs. Traditional cross sectional surveys and molecular epidemiological approaches are complementary and together can enhance understanding of disease ecology: abundance of ecological resources critical for wildlife influences Salmonella prevalence, whereas Salmonella transmission is driven by local spatial, social, density and individual factors, rather than resources. This enhanced understanding has implications for the control of diseases in wildlife populations. Attempts to manage wildlife disease using simplistic density approaches do not acknowledge the complexity of disease ecology.