Differences in autophagy marker levels at birth in preterm vs. term infants.

BACKGROUND: Preterm infants are susceptible to oxidative stress and prone to respiratory diseases. Autophagy is an important defense mechanism against oxidative-stress-induced cell damage and involved in lung development and respiratory morbidity. We hypothesized that autophagy marker levels differ between preterm and term infants. METHODS: In the prospective Basel-Bern Infant Lung Development (BILD) birth cohort we compared cord blood levels of macroautophagy (Beclin-1, LC3B), selective autophagy (p62) and regulation of autophagy (SIRT1) in 64 preterm and 453 term infants. RESULTS: Beclin-1 and LC3B did not differ between preterm and term infants. However, p62 was higher (0.37, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.05;0.69 in log2-transformed level, p = 0.025, padj = 0.050) and SIRT1 lower in preterm infants (-0.55, 95% CI -0.78;-0.31 in log2-transformed level, padj < 0.001). Furthermore, p62 decreased (padj-value for smoothing function was 0.018) and SIRT1 increased (0.10, 95% CI 0.07;0.13 in log2-transformed level, padj < 0.001) with increasing gestational age. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest differential levels of key autophagy markers between preterm and term infants. This adds to the knowledge of the sparsely studied field of autophagy mechanisms in preterm infants and might be linked to impaired oxidative stress response, preterm birth, impaired lung development and higher susceptibility to respiratory morbidity in preterm infants. IMPACT: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate autophagy marker levels between human preterm and term infants in a large population-based sample in cord blood plasma This study demonstrates differential levels of key autophagy markers in preterm compared to term infants and an association with gestational age This may be linked to impaired oxidative stress response or developmental aspects and provide bases for future studies investigating the association with respiratory morbidity.

Pollen exposure is associated with risk of respiratory symptoms during the first year of life.

BACKGROUND: Pollen exposure is associated with respiratory symptoms in children and adults. However, the association of pollen exposure with respiratory symptoms during infancy, a particularly vulnerable period, remains unclear. We examined whether pollen exposure is associated with respiratory symptoms in infants and whether maternal atopy, infant's sex or air pollution modifies this association. METHODS: We investigated 14,874 observations from 401 healthy infants of a prospective birth cohort. The association between pollen exposure and respiratory symptoms, assessed in weekly telephone interviews, was evaluated using generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs). Effect modification by maternal atopy, infant's sex, and air pollution (NO2 , PM2.5 ) was assessed with interaction terms. RESULTS: Per infant, 37 ± 2 (mean ± SD) respiratory symptom scores were assessed during the analysis period (January through September). Pollen exposure was associated with increased respiratory symptoms during the daytime (RR [95% CI] per 10% pollen/m3 : combined 1.006 [1.002, 1.009]; tree 1.005 [1.002, 1.008]; grass 1.009 [1.000, 1.23]) and nighttime (combined 1.003 [0.999, 1.007]; tree 1.003 [0.999, 1.007]; grass 1.014 [1.004, 1.024]). While there was no effect modification by maternal atopy and infant's sex, a complex crossover interaction between combined pollen and PM2.5 was found (p-value 0.003). CONCLUSION: Even as early as during the first year of life, pollen exposure was associated with an increased risk of respiratory symptoms, independent of maternal atopy and infant's sex. Because infancy is a particularly vulnerable period for lung development, the identified adverse effect of pollen exposure may be relevant for the evolvement of chronic childhood asthma.

Are children born by cesarean delivery at higher risk for respiratory sequelae?

BACKGROUND: Globally, the number of children born by cesarean delivery is constantly increasing. However, hormonal and physiological changes associated with labor and vaginal delivery are considered necessary for lung maturation. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to assess whether the mode of delivery is associated with changes in respiratory and atopic outcomes during infancy and at school age. STUDY DESIGN: We included 578 children, born at ≥37 weeks of gestation, from a prospective birth cohort study. We compared weekly respiratory symptoms throughout the first year of life and infant lung function (tidal breathing and multiple-breath washout) at 5 weeks of age between children born by cesarean delivery (N=114) and those born by vaginal delivery (N=464) after term pregnancy in healthy women. At a follow-up visit conducted at 6 years of age (N=371, of which 65 were delivered by cesarean delivery), we assessed respiratory, atopic, and lung function outcomes (spirometry, body plethysmography, and multiple-breath washout). We performed adjusted regression analyses to examine the association between cesarean delivery and respiratory and atopic outcomes. To account for multiple testing, we used the Bonferroni correction, which led to an adapted significance level of P<.002. RESULTS: During infancy, children born by cesarean delivery did not have more respiratory symptoms than those born by vaginal delivery (median, 4 weeks; interquartile range, 7 weeks vs median, 5 weeks; interquartile range, 7 weeks; adjusted incidence rate ratio, 0.8; 95% confidence interval, 0.6-1.0; P=.02). Infant lung function was similar between the groups. Children born by cesarean delivery did not have a higher incidence of "ever wheezing" (adjusted odds ratio, 0.9; 95% confidence interval, 0.5-1.8; P=.78) or current asthma (adjusted odds ratio, 0.4; 95% confidence interval, 0.0-3.5; P=.42) at school age than those born by vaginal delivery. There was no difference in the lung function parameters between the groups. CONCLUSION: Cesarean delivery was not associated with respiratory symptoms in the first year of life, nor with different respiratory or atopic outcomes at school age, when compared with vaginal delivery. Our results indicate that there are no long-term consequences on the respiratory health of the child associated with cesarean delivery.

Effect of Salbutamol on Lung Ventilation in Children with Cystic Fibrosis: Comprehensive Assessment Using Spirometry, Multiple-Breath Washout, and Functional Lung Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

BACKGROUND: Inhalation therapy is one of the cornerstones of the daily treatment regimen in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Recommendations regarding the addition of bronchodilators, especially salbutamol are conflicting due to the lack of evidence. New diagnostic measures such as multiple-breath washout (MBW) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have the potential to reveal new insights into bronchodilator effects in patients with CF. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to comprehensively assess the functional response to nebulized inhalation with salbutamol in children with CF. METHODS: Thirty children aged 6-18 years with stable CF performed pulmonary function tests, MBW, and matrix pencil-MRI before and after standardized nebulized inhalation of salbutamol. RESULTS: Lung clearance index decreased (improved) by -0.24 turnover (95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.53 to 0.06; p = 0.111). Percentage of the lung volume with impaired fractional ventilation and relative perfusion decreased (improved) by -0.79% (CI: -1.99 to 0.42; p = 0.194) and -1.31% (CI: -2.28 to -0.35; p = 0.009), respectively. Forced expiratory volume (FEV1) increased (improved) by 0.41 z-score (CI: 0.24-0.58; p < 0.0001). We could not identify specific clinical factors associated with a more pronounced effect of salbutamol. CONCLUSIONS: There is a positive short-term effect of bronchodilator inhalation on FEV1 in patients with CF, which is independent of ventilation inhomogeneity. Heterogeneous response between patients suggests that for prediction of a therapeutic effect this should be tested by spirometry in every patient individually.

Longitudinal course of clinical lung clearance index in children with cystic fibrosis.

BACKGROUND: Although the lung clearance index (LCI) is a sensitive marker of small airway disease in individuals with cystic fibrosis (CF), less is known about longitudinal changes in LCI during routine clinical surveillance. Here, our objectives were to describe the longitudinal course of LCI in children with CF during routine clinical surveillance and assess influencing factors. METHODS: Children with CF aged 3-18 years performed LCI measurements every 3 months as part of routine clinical care between 2011 and 2018. We recorded clinical data at every visit. We used a multilevel mixed effect model to determine changes in LCI over time and identify clinical factors that influence LCI course. RESULTS: We collected LCI measurements from 1204 visits (3603 trials) in 78 participants, of which 907 visits had acceptable LCI data. The average unadjusted increase in LCI for the entire population was 0.29 (95% CI 0.20-0.38) LCI units·year-1. The increase in LCI was more pronounced in adolescence (0.41 (95% CI 0.27-0.54) LCI units·year-1). Colonisation with either Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Aspergillus fumigatus, pulmonary exacerbations, CF-related diabetes and bronchopulmonary aspergillosis were associated with a higher increase in LCI over time. Adjusting for clinical risk factors reduced the increase in LCI over time to 0.24 (95% CI 0.16-0.33) LCI units·year-1. CONCLUSIONS: LCI measured during routine clinical surveillance is associated with underlying disease progression in children with CF. An increased change in LCI over time should prompt further diagnostic intervention.

Normative data for multiple breath washout outcomes in school-aged Caucasian children.

BACKGROUND: The multiple breath nitrogen washout (N2MBW) technique is increasingly used to assess the degree of ventilation inhomogeneity in school-aged children with lung disease. However, reference values for healthy children are currently not available. The aim of this study was to generate reference values for N2MBW outcomes in a cohort of healthy Caucasian school-aged children. METHODS: N2MBW data from healthy Caucasian school-age children between 6 and 18 years old were collected from four experienced centres. Measurements were performed using an ultrasonic flowmeter (Exhalyzer D, Eco Medics AG, Duernten, Switzerland) and were analysed with commercial software (Spiroware version 3.2.1, Eco Medics AG). Normative values and upper limits of normal (ULN) were generated for lung clearance index (LCI) at 2.5% (LCI2.5%) and at 5% (LCI5%) of the initial nitrogen concentration and for moment ratios (M1/M0 and M2/M0). A prediction equation was generated for functional residual capacity (FRC). RESULTS: Analysis used 485 trials from 180 healthy Caucasian children aged from 6 to 18 years old. While LCI increased with age, this increase was negligible (0.04 units·year-1 for LCI2.5%) and therefore fixed ULN were defined for this age group. These limits were 7.91 for LCI2.5%, 5.73 for LCI5%, 1.75 for M1/M0 and 6.15 for M2/M0, respectively. Height and weight were found to be independent predictors of FRC. CONCLUSION: We report reference values for N2MBW outcomes measured on a commercially available ultrasonic flowmeter device (Exhalyzer D, Eco Medics AG) in healthy school-aged children to allow accurate interpretation of ventilation distribution outcomes and FRC in children with lung disease.

Elevated lung clearance index in infants with cystic fibrosis shortly after birth.

It is not known at what age lung function impairment may arise in children with cystic fibrosis (CF). We assessed lung function shortly after birth in infants with CF diagnosed by newborn screening.We performed infant lung function measurements in a prospective cohort of infants with CF and healthy controls. We assessed lung clearance index (LCI), functional residual capacity (FRC) and tidal breathing parameters. The primary outcome was prevalence and severity of abnormal lung function (±1.64 z-scores) in CF.We enrolled 53 infants with CF (mean age 7.8 weeks) and 57 controls (mean age 5.2 weeks). Compared to controls, LCI and FRC were elevated (mean difference 0.30, 95% CI 0.02-0.60; p=0.034 and 14.5 mL, 95% CI 7.7-21.3 mL; p<0.001, respectively), while ratio of time to peak tidal expiratory flow to expiratory time was decreased in infants with CF. In 22 (41.5%) infants with CF, either LCI or FRC exceeded 1.64 z-scores; three infants had both elevated LCI and FRC.Shortly after birth, abnormal lung function is prevalent in CF infants. Ventilation inhomogeneity or hyperinflation may serve as noninvasive markers to monitor CF lung disease and specific treatment effects, and could thus be used as outcome parameters for future intervention studies in this age group.

Functional evidence for continued alveolarisation in former preterms at school age?

Prematurity is the most common disruptor of lung development. The aim of our study was to examine the function of the more vulnerable peripheral airways in former preterm children by multiple-breath washout (MBW) measurements.86 school-aged children, born between 24 and 35 weeks of gestation and 49 term-born children performed nitrogen MBW. Lung clearance index (LCI), and slope III-derived Scond and Sacin were assessed as markers for global, convection-dependent and diffusion-convection-dependent ventilation inhomogeneity, respectively.We analysed the data of 77 former preterm (mean (range) age 9.5 (7.2-12.8) years) and 46 term-born children (mean age 9.9 (6.0-15.9) years). LCI and Sacin did not differ between preterm and term-born children. Scond was significantly elevated in preterm compared to term-born participants (mean difference z-score 1.74, 95% CI 1.17-2.30; p<0.001), with 54% of former preterm children showing elevated Scond. In multivariable regression analysis Scond was significantly related only to gestational age (R(2)=0.37).Normal Sacin provides evidence for a functionally normal alveolar compartment, while elevated Scond indicates impaired function of more proximal conducting airways. Together, our findings support the concept of continued alveolarisation, albeit with "dysanaptic" lung growth in former preterm children.

Lung clearance index in cystic fibrosis subjects treated for pulmonary exacerbations.

Pulmonary exacerbations are important clinical events for cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. Studies assessing the ability of the lung clearance index (LCI) to detect treatment response for pulmonary exacerbations have yielded heterogeneous results. Here, we conduct a retrospective analysis of pooled LCI data to assess treatment with intravenous antibiotics for pulmonary exacerbations and to understand factors explaining the heterogeneous response.A systematic literature search was performed to identify prospective observational studies. Factors predicting the relative change in LCI and spirometry were evaluated while adjusting for within-study clustering.Six previously reported studies and one unpublished study, which included 176 pulmonary exacerbations in both paediatric and adult patients, were included. Overall, LCI significantly decreased by 0.40 units (95% CI -0.60- -0.19, p=0.004) or 2.5% following treatment. The relative change in LCI was significantly correlated with the relative change in forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1), but results were discordant in 42.5% of subjects (80 out of 188). Higher (worse) baseline LCI was associated with a greater improvement in LCI (slope: -0.9%, 95% CI -1.0- -0.4%).LCI response to therapy for pulmonary exacerbations is heterogeneous in CF patients; the overall effect size is small and results are often discordant with FEV1.

A computerized tool for the systematic visual quality assessment of infant multiple-breath washout measurements.

Background: Multiple-breath washout (MBW) is a sensitive method for assessing lung volumes and ventilation inhomogeneity in infants, but remains prone to artefacts (e.g., sighs). There is a lack of tools for systematic retrospective analysis of existing datasets, and unlike N2-MBW in older children, there are few specific quality control (QC) criteria for artefacts in infant SF6-MBW. Aim: We aimed to develop a computer-based tool for systematic evaluation of visual QC criteria of SF6-MBW measurements and to investigate interrater agreement and effects on MBW outcomes among three independent examiners. Methods: We developed a software package for visualization of raw Spiroware (Eco Medics AG, Switzerland) and signal processed WBreath (ndd Medizintechnik AG, Switzerland) SF6-MBW signal traces. Interrater agreement among three independent examiners (two experienced, one novice) who systematically reviewed 400 MBW trials for visual artefacts and the decision to accept/reject the washin and washout were assessed. Results: Our tool visualizes MBW signals and provides the user with (i) display options (e.g., zoom), (ii) options for a systematic QC assessment [e.g., decision to accept or reject, identification of artefacts (leak, sigh, irregular breathing pattern, breath hold), and comments], and (iii) additional information (e.g., automatic identification of sighs). Reviewer agreement was good using pre-defined QC criteria (κ 0.637-0.725). Differences in the decision to accept/reject had no substantial effect on MBW outcomes. Conclusion: Our visual quality control tool supports a systematic retrospective analysis of existing data sets. Based on predefined QC criteria, even inexperienced users can achieve comparable MBW results.

Multiple-breath washout measurements can be significantly shortened in children.

Multiple-breath washout (MBW)-derived lung clearance index (LCI) is a sensitive measure of ventilation inhomogeneity in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF), but LCI measurement is time consuming. We systematically assessed ways to shorten LCI measurements. In 68 school-aged children (44 with mild CF lung disease) three standard nitrogen (N2) MBWs were applied. We assessed repeatability and diagnostic performance of (1) LCI measured earlier from three MBW runs and (2) LCI measured at complete MBW (1/40th of starting N2 concentration) from two runs only. Compared with the standard LCI from three complete MBW runs, the new LCI based on three N2MBW runs until 1/20th, or two complete runs until 1/40th, provided similar or better repeatability as well as sensitivity and specificity for CF lung disease. Alternative ways to measure LCI reduced test duration in children with CF by 30% and 41%, respectively. LCI measurements can be reliably shortened in children. These new MBW protocols may advance the transition of LCI from research into clinical settings.

Variability of clinically measured lung clearance index in children with cystic fibrosis.

RATIONALE: The lung clearance index (LCI) is increasingly being used in the clinical surveillance of patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). However, there are limited data on long-term variability and physiologically relevant changes in LCI during routine clinical surveillance. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the long-term variability of LCI and propose a threshold for a physiologically relevant change. METHODS: In children aged 4-18 years with CF, LCI was measured every 3 months as part of routine clinical surveillance during 2011-2020 in two centers. The variability of LCI during periods of clinical stability was assessed using mixed-effects models and was used to identify thresholds for physiologically relevant changes. RESULTS: Repeated LCI measurements of acceptable quality (N = 858) were available in 100 patients with CF; for 74 patients, 399 visits at clinical stability were available. The variability of repeated LCI measurements over time expressed as the coefficient of variation (CV%) was 7.4%. The upper limit of normal (ULN) for relative changes in LCI between visits was 19%. CONCLUSION: We report the variability of LCI in children and adolescents with CF during routine clinical surveillance. According to our data, a change in LCI beyond 19% may be considered physiologically relevant. These findings will help guide clinical decisions according to LCI changes.

Antibiotics in pregnancy influence nasal microbiome and respiratory morbidity in infancy.

Background: The effects of prenatal antibiotic exposure on respiratory morbidity in infancy and the involved mechanisms are still poorly understood. We aimed to examine whether prenatal antibiotic exposure in the third trimester is associated with nasal microbiome and respiratory morbidity in infancy and at school age, and whether this association with respiratory morbidity is mediated by the nasal microbiome. Methods: We performed 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing (regions V3-V4) on nasal swabs obtained from 296 healthy term infants from the prospective Basel-Bern birth cohort (BILD) at age 4-6 weeks. Information about antibiotic exposure was derived from birth records and standardised interviews. Respiratory symptoms were assessed by weekly telephone interviews in the first year of life and a clinical visit at age 6 years. Structural equation modelling was used to test direct and indirect associations accounting for known risk factors. Results: α-Diversity indices were lower in infants with antibiotic exposure compared to nonexposed infants (e.g. Shannon index p-value 0.006). Prenatal antibiotic exposure was also associated with a higher risk of any, as well as severe, respiratory symptoms in the first year of life (risk ratio 1.38, 95% CI 1.03-1.84; adjusted p-value (padj)=0.032 and risk ratio 1.75, 95% CI 1.02-2.97; padj=0.041, respectively), but not with wheeze or atopy in childhood. However, we found no indirect mediating effect of nasal microbiome explaining these clinical symptoms. Conclusion: Prenatal antibiotic exposure was associated with lower diversity of nasal microbiome in infancy and, independently of microbiome, with respiratory morbidity in infancy, but not with symptoms later in life.

Do clinimetric properties of LCI change after correction of signal processing?

BACKGROUND: The recently described sensor-crosstalk error in the multiple-breath washout (MBW) device Exhalyzer D (Eco Medics AG) could highly influence clinimetric properties and the current interpretation of MBW results. This study reanalyzes MBW data from clinical routine in the corrected software version Spiroware® 3.3.1 and evaluates the effect on outcomes. METHODS: We included nitrogen-MBW data from healthy children and children with cystic fibrosis (CF) from previously published trials and ongoing cohort studies. We specifically compared lung clearance index (LCI) analyzed in Spiroware 3.2.1 and 3.3.1 with regard to (i) feasibility, (ii) repeatability, and (iii) validity as outcome parameters in children with CF. RESULTS: (i) All previously collected measurements could be reanalyzed and resulted in unchanged feasibility in Spiroware 3.3.1. (ii) Short- and midterm repeatability of LCI was similar in both software versions. (iii) Clinical validity of LCI remained similar in Spiroware 3.3.1; however, this resulted in lower values. Discrimination between health and disease was comparable between both software versions. The increase in LCI over time was less pronounced with 0.16 LCI units/year (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.08; 0.24) versus 0.30 LCI units/year (95% CI 0.21; 0.38) in 3.2.1. Response to intervention in children receiving CF transmembrane conductance-modulator therapy resulted in a comparable improvement in LCI, in both Spiroware versions. CONCLUSION: Our study confirms that clinimetric properties of LCI remain unaffected after correction for the cross-sensitivity error in Spiroware software.

Low Birth Weight and Impaired Later Lung Function: Results from a Monochorionic Twin Study.

Rationale: Fetal growth restriction (FGR) and resulting low birth weight are risk factors for impaired lung development. However, both are often correlated with other factors, especially prematurity. Therefore, the question whether lung function changes in individuals with FGR are driven by gestational age, fetal growth, or both often remains unanswered. Objectives: To examine the association of birth weight with lung function in monochorionic twins with selective FGR in one twin. Methods: We included 20 monochorionic twin pairs with selective FGR and subsequent discordant birth weight with a minimum age of 6 years. In this unique case-control design, the smaller twin represents the case and the cotwin the almost identical counterpart. They performed spirometry and underwent body plethysmography, multiple-breath washout, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We compared lung function and MRI outcomes between the smaller twins and their cotwins by paired t tests, and we used mixed linear models to assess the association between birth weight and outcomes. Results: Mean study age was 18.4 years (range, 7.5-29.4), and mean difference in birth weight within the twin pairs was 575 g (range, 270-1,130). The mean difference of forced expiratory volume in 1 second z-score was -0.64 (95% confidence interval [CI], -0.98 to -0.30), and -0.55 (95% CI, -0.92 to -0.18) of forced vital capacity z-score between the smaller twins and their cotwins. Both were associated with birth weight: per 500 g of birth weight, forced expiratory volume in 1 second z-score increased by 0.50 (95% CI, 0.35-0.65; P < 0.001) and forced vital capacity z-score increased by 0.44 (95% CI, 0.31-0.57; P < 0.001). Sacin from multiple-breath washout, as a marker for ventilation inhomogeneity of acinar airways, was elevated in the smaller twins and was associated with low birth weight. There was no difference for MRI outcomes. The results remained similar after adjustment for study height. Conclusions: Low birth weight was associated with reduced large and small airway function independent of gestational age and body growth. Our findings suggest that intrauterine impairment of lung development induced by FGR has significant consequences on lung function until early adulthood.

Novel volumetric capnography indices measure ventilation inhomogeneity in cystic fibrosis.

Background: Volumetric capnography (VCap) is a simpler alternative to multiple-breath washout (MBW) to detect ventilation inhomogeneity in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). However, its diagnostic performance is influenced by breathing dynamics. We introduce two novel VCap indices, the capnographic inhomogeneity indices (CIIs), that may overcome this limitation and explore their diagnostic characteristics in a cohort of CF patients. Methods: We analysed 320 N2-MBW trials from 50 CF patients and 65 controls (age 4-18 years) and calculated classical VCap indices, such as slope III (SIII) and the capnographic index (KPIv). We introduced novel CIIs based on a theoretical lung model and assessed their diagnostic performance compared to classical VCap indices and the lung clearance index (LCI). Results: Both CIIs were significantly higher in CF patients compared with controls (mean±sd CII1 5.9±1.4% versus 5.1±1.0%, p=0.002; CII2 7.7±1.8% versus 6.8±1.4%, p=0.002) and presented strong correlation with LCI (CII1 r2=0.47 and CII2 r2=0.44 in CF patients). Classical VCap indices showed inferior discriminative ability (SIII 2.3±1.0%/L versus 1.9±0.7%/L, p=0.013; KPIv 3.9±1.3% versus 3.5±1.2%, p=0.071), while the correlation with LCI was weak (SIII r2=0.03; KPIv r2=0.08 in CF patients). CIIs showed lower intra-subject inter-trial variability, calculated as coefficient of variation for three and relative difference for two trials, than classical VCap indices, but higher than LCI (CII1 11.1±8.2% and CII2 11.0±8.0% versus SIII 16.3±13.5%; KPIv 15.9±12.8%; LCI 5.9%±4.2%). Conclusion: CIIs detect ventilation inhomogeneity better than classical VCap indices and correlate well with LCI. However, further studies on their diagnostic performance and clinical utility are required.

Longitudinal lung function in childhood cancer survivors after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.

Longitudinal data on pulmonary function after pediatric allogeneic or autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) are rare. We examined pulmonary function and associated risk factors in 5-year childhood cancer survivors (CCSs) longitudinally. We included 74 CCSs diagnosed between 1976 and 2010, treated with HSCT, and with at least two pulmonary function tests performed during follow-up. Median follow-up was 9 years (range 6-13). We described pulmonary function as z-scores for lung volumes (forced vital capacity [FVC], residual volume [RV], total lung capacity [TLC]), flows (forced expiratory volume in 1 s [FEV1], maximal mid-expiratory flow [MMEF]), and diffusion capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) and assessed associations with potential risk factors using multivariable regression analysis. The median z-scores for FEV1, FVC, and TLC were below the expected throughout the follow-up period. This was not the case for RV, MMEF and DLCO. Female gender, radiotherapy to the chest, and relapse were associated with lower z-scores of FEV1, FVC, MMEF, RV or DLCO. Childhood cancer survivors after HSCT are at risk of pulmonary dysfunction. The complex and multifactorial etiology of pulmonary dysfunction emphasizes the need for longitudinal prospective studies to better characterize the course and causes of pulmonary function impairment in CCSs.