Microscopic Small Airway Abnormalities Identified in Early Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis In Vivo Using Endobronchial Optical Coherence Tomography.

Rationale: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) affects the subpleural lung but is considered to spare small airways. Micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) studies demonstrated small airway reduction in end-stage IPF explanted lungs, raising questions about small airway involvement in early-stage disease. Endobronchial optical coherence tomography (EB-OCT) is a volumetric imaging modality that detects microscopic features from subpleural to proximal airways. Objectives: In this study, EB-OCT was used to evaluate small airways in early IPF and control subjects in vivo. Methods: EB-OCT was performed in 12 subjects with IPF and 5 control subjects (matched by age, sex, smoking history, height, and body mass index). Subjects with IPF had early disease with mild restriction (FVC: 83.5% predicted), which was diagnosed per current guidelines and confirmed by surgical biopsy. EB-OCT volumetric imaging was acquired bronchoscopically in multiple, distinct, bilateral lung locations (total: 97 sites). IPF imaging sites were classified by severity into affected (all criteria for usual interstitial pneumonia present) and less affected (some but not all criteria for usual interstitial pneumonia present). Bronchiole count and small airway stereology metrics were measured for each EB-OCT imaging site. Measurements and Main Results: Compared with the number of bronchioles in control subjects (mean = 11.2/cm3; SD = 6.2), there was significant bronchiole reduction in subjects with IPF (42% loss; mean = 6.5/cm3; SD = 3.4; P = 0.0039), including in IPF affected (48% loss; mean: 5.8/cm3; SD: 2.8; P < 0.00001) and IPF less affected (33% loss; mean: 7.5/cm3; SD: 4.1; P = 0.024) sites. Stereology metrics showed that IPF-affected small airways were significantly larger, more distorted, and more irregular than in IPF-less affected sites and control subjects. IPF less affected and control airways were statistically indistinguishable for all stereology parameters (P = 0.36-1.0). Conclusions: EB-OCT demonstrated marked bronchiolar loss in early IPF (between 30% and 50%), even in areas minimally affected by disease, compared with matched control subjects. These findings support small airway disease as a feature of early IPF, providing novel insight into pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets.

Kidney Function Decline among Black Patients with Sickle Cell Trait and Sickle Cell Disease: An Observational Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Sickle cell trait and sickle cell disease are thought to be independent risk factors for CKD, but the trajectory and predictors of kidney function decline in patients with these phenotypes are not well understood. METHODS: Our multicenter, observational study used registry data (collected January 2005 through June 2018) and included adult black patients with sickle cell trait or disease (exposures) or normal hemoglobin phenotype (reference) status (ascertained by electrophoresis) and at least 1 year of follow-up and three eGFR values. We used linear mixed models to evaluate the difference in the mean change in eGFR per year. RESULTS: We identified 1251 patients with sickle cell trait, 230 with sickle cell disease, and 8729 reference patients, with a median follow-up of 8 years. After adjustment, eGFR declined significantly faster in patients with sickle cell trait or sickle cell disease compared with reference patients; it also declined significantly faster in patients with sickle cell disease than in patients with sickle cell trait. Male sex, diabetes mellitus, and baseline eGFR ≥90 ml/min per 1.73 m2 were associated with faster eGFR decline for both phenotypes. In sickle cell trait, low hemoglobin S and elevated hemoglobin A were associated with faster eGFR decline, but elevated hemoglobins F and A2 were renoprotective. CONCLUSIONS: Sickle cell trait and disease are associated with faster eGFR decline in black patients, with faster decline in sickle cell disease. Low hemoglobin S was associated with faster eGFR decline in sickle cell trait but may be confounded by concurrent hemoglobinopathies. Prospective and mechanistic studies are needed to develop best practices to attenuate eGFR decline in such patients.

Mortality and Hospitalizations among Sickle Cell Disease Patients with End-Stage Kidney Disease Initiating Dialysis.

BACKGROUND: Sickle cell disease (SCD) is the most common inherited hematological disorder and a well-described risk factor for end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). Mortality and hospitalizations among patients with SCD who develop ESKD remain understudied. Furthermore, prior studies focused only on SCD patients where ESKD was caused by SCD. We aimed to describe mortality and hospitalization risk in all SCD patients initiating dialysis and explore risk factors for mortality and hospitalization. METHODS: We performed a national observational cohort study of African American ESKD patients initiating dialysis (2000-2014) in facilities affiliated with a large dialysis provider. SCD was identified by diagnosis codes and matched to a reference population (non-SCD) by age, sex, dialysis initiation year, and geographic region of care. Sensitivity analyses were conducted by restricting to patients where SCD was recorded as the cause of ESKD. RESULTS: We identified 504 SCD patients (mean age: 47 ± 14 years; 48% females) and 1,425 reference patients (mean age: 46 ± 14 years; 49% females). The median follow-up was 2.4 (IQR 1.0-4.5) years. Compared to the reference, SCD was associated with higher mortality risk (hazard ratio 1.66; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.36-2.03) and higher hospitalization rates (incidence rate ratio 2.12; 95% CI: 1.88-2.38) in multivariable analyses. Exploratory multivariable mortality risk models showed the largest mortality risk attenuation with the addition of time-varying hemoglobin and high-dose erythropoietin, but the association of SCD with mortality remained significant. Sensitivity analyses (restricted to ESKD caused by SCD) also showed significant associations between SCD and mortality and hospitalizations, but with larger effect estimates. High-dose erythropoietin was associated with the highest risk for mortality and hospitalization in SCD. CONCLUSIONS: Among ESKD patients, SCD is associated with a higher risk for mortality and hospitalization, particularly in patients where SCD is identified as the cause of ESKD.

Cardiovascular Outcomes in African Americans with Sickle Cell Trait and Chronic Kidney Disease.

BACKGROUND: Sickle cell trait (SCT) is common among African Americans and has been historically considered to be benign. Recently, SCT has been associated with an increased risk for chronic kidney disease (CKD) and cardiovascular disease in the general population. Our understanding of SCT has been extrapolated largely from data of patients with sickle cell disease (SCD). Notably, in SCD, the outcomes differ by sex. The effect of SCT on cardiovascular risk in the African American CKD population is unknown, and the interaction between SCT and sex on cardiovascular risk has not been investigated. METHODS: We performed a 2-center retrospective cohort study of all African American patients with SCT using international classification of disease diagnosis codes and CKD (using the 2012 Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes criteria) with at least 1 year of follow-up between January 2005 and December 2017. A reference group of -African American CKD patients without SCT was used as a comparator during the same period. SCT patients and the reference patients were matched at baseline for age, sex, comorbidities, and proteinuria. Primary outcomes were incident coronary artery disease (CAD), incident stroke, and all-cause mortality. Analysis of effect modification between sex and SCT on primary outcomes was performed. RESULTS: We identified 621 African American CKD patients, 217 SCT patients, and 404 reference patients. The mean age was 56 ± 13 years and 66% were female. The mean estimated glomerular filtration rate was 69 ± 30 mL/min. The mean follow-up time was 8 ± 4 years. There were no significant differences in the primary outcomes comparing SCT patients to matched controls. The interaction term between SCT and sex, however, was significant in the CAD model (p < 0.01). Stratification by sex showed no increased risk in females but a significantly increased risk for CAD in male SCT patients (hazard ratio [HR] 2.14; 95% CI 1.18-3.86), which persisted after multivariable analysis (HR 2.13; 95% CI 1.17-3.86). CONCLUSION: SCT is associated with an increased risk for CAD in African American males with CKD. The excess risk in males with SCT appears to follow the same pattern as risk in males with SCD. Larger studies are needed to confirm these findings.

Trajectories of Uremic Symptom Severity and Kidney Function in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Uremic symptoms, including fatigue, anorexia, pruritus, nausea, paresthesia, and pain, are attributed to the accumulation of organic waste products normally cleared by the kidneys, but whether kidney function is the primary driver of changes in symptom severity over time is not known. The goal of our study was to evaluate the association between eGFR and uremic symptom severity score in patients with CKD. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, AND MEASUREMENTS: We identified 3685 participants with CKD not on dialysis in the prospective, observational Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort (CRIC) Study with baseline assessment of eGFR and uremic symptom severity. Symptoms were assessed by separate questions on the Kidney Disease Quality of Life-36 instrument (zero- to 100-point scale). The longitudinal association between eGFR and uremic symptom severity score was examined with multivariable adjusted linear mixed-effects models with random intercepts and random slopes. RESULTS: The mean±SD eGFR at baseline was 44±15 ml/min per 1.73 m2, and participants had a median of six (interquartile range 3-11) simultaneous assessments of eGFR and uremic symptoms over the duration of follow-up. The most prevalent symptoms at baseline were pain (57%), fatigue (52%), paresthesia (45%), and pruritus (42%). In adjusted models, a decrease in eGFR of 5 ml/min per 1.73 m2 was associated with a worsening of the symptom severity score by two points or less for each uremic symptom (P<0.01; zero- to 100-point scale). The association between eGFR and uremic symptom severity score was nonlinear. When starting from a lower initial eGFR, a 5 ml/min per 1.73 m2 decrease in eGFR was associated with a greater magnitude of uremic symptom worsening. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of uremic symptoms in CKD is high, with significant variability in patient symptom change over time. Declines in eGFR were associated with worsening of uremic symptom severity, but the magnitude of these changes is small and of uncertain clinical significance.

Acute Kidney Injury among Black Patients with Sickle Cell Trait and Sickle Cell Disease.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Sickle cell trait and sickle cell disease are associated with faster GFR decline compared with normal hemoglobin phenotypes. We sought to compare the AKI risk in sickle cell trait/disease to normal hemoglobin phenotypes and investigate the association between AKI and GFR decline in sickle cell trait/disease. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS: This multicenter observational study used registry data (January 2005-June 2018) of adult Black patients with sickle cell trait/disease (exposures) and normal hemoglobin phenotype (reference) ascertained by hemoglobin electrophoresis. Outcomes of interest (incident AKI [1.5 times baseline serum creatinine or higher], incident severe AKI [doubling of baseline serum creatinine or higher], and incident sustained AKI [AKI persisting for ≥72 hours]) were adjudicated by chart review and evaluated by Cox regression. The association between AKI and GFR decline (linear mixed models) was also investigated. RESULTS: We identified 8968 reference patients, 1279 patients with sickle cell trait, and 254 patients with sickle cell disease with a median follow-up of 7.6 years and mean baseline serum creatinine of 0.8 mg/dl. We observed 796 AKI events, 452 sustained AKI events, and 466 severe AKI events. Compared with people with a normal hemoglobin phenotype, sickle cell trait was associated with higher risk for sustained AKI (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.64; 95% confidence interval, 1.27 to 2.11), but not AKI (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.11; 95% confidence interval, 0.91 to 1.36) or severe AKI (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.26; 95% confidence interval, 0.96 to 1.64). Sickle cell disease was associated with AKI (adjusted hazard ratio, 2.85; 95% confidence interval, 2.13 to 3.81), severe AKI (adjusted hazard ratio, 2.38; 95% confidence interval, 1.65 to 3.42), and sustained AKI (adjusted hazard ratio, 2.50; 95% confidence interval, 1.68 to 3.71). Post-AKI GFR decline was significantly faster in sickle cell trait (0.37 ml/min per 1.73 m2 per year faster, P<0.01) and disease (1.69 ml/min per 1.73 m2 per year faster, P<0.01) compared with the reference. CONCLUSIONS: Sickle cell trait and disease are associated with higher risk of AKI, which is associated with accelerated decline in eGFR.

Rapid corticosteroid taper versus standard of care for immune checkpoint inhibitor induced nephritis: a single-center retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Current guidelines for treatment of immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-induced nephritis are not evidence based and may lead to excess corticosteroid exposure. We aimed to compare a rapid corticosteroid taper to standard of care. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study in patients with ICI-induced nephritis comparing a rapid taper beginning with 60 mg/day prednisone and tapered to 10 mg within 3 weeks to a historical control group that began 60 mg/day tapered to 10 mg within 6 weeks (standard of care). Renal recovery was defined as creatinine returning to within 1.5-fold baseline. The log-rank test compared the differences in time to renal recovery between the groups. We report rates of renal recovery at 30, 60 and 90 days, and timing and outcomes of ICI rechallenge. RESULTS: Thirteen patients received rapid corticosteroid taper and 14 patients received standard of care. Baseline characteristics were similar between groups. The median time to ≤10 mg/day prednisone was 20 days (IQR 15-25) in the rapid-taper group compared with 38 days (IQR 30-58) in the standard-of-care group. There was no significant difference in the time to renal recovery between the groups, though numerically higher numbers of patients recovered by 30 days, 11 (85%) in the rapid-taper arm versus 6 (46%) in the standard of care arm. Exposure to other nephritis-causing medications (proton pump inhibitor or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) during the corticosteroid taper was more common in the standard of care group, 9 (64%) versus rapid-taper group, 2 (15%), and was associated with longer time to renal recovery, 20 days (IQR 14-101) versus 13 days (IQR 7-34) in those that discontinued nephritis-causing medications. Fifteen (56%) of patients were rechallenged with ICIs, and only two (13%) developed recurrent nephritis. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with ICI-induced nephritis have excellent kidney outcomes when treated with corticosteroids that are tapered over 3 weeks.

Immune-related adverse events and kidney function decline in patients with genitourinary cancers treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

BACKGROUND: In patients with genitourinary cancers, the effect of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) on kidney function is unknown. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This is a retrospective cohort study of patients with renal cell carcinoma (RCC) and urothelial carcinoma who received ICIs at two major cancer centers between 2012 and 2018. Cumulative incidence and Fine and Gray subdistribution hazard models were performed to determine predictors of the co-primary outcomes, (1) acute kidney injury (AKI) and (2) sustained estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) loss, defined as a >20% decline in eGFR sustained ≥90 days. We also determined the association between immune-related adverse events (irAE) and adverse kidney outcomes among patients surviving ≥1 year. RESULTS: 637 patients were included; 320 (50%) patients had RCC and 317 (50%) patients had urothelial carcinoma. Half of the cohort had eGFR<60 mL/min/1.73 m2 at baseline. irAEs, AKI, and sustained eGFR loss were common, occurring in 33%, 25% and 16%, respectively. Compared to patients with urothelial carcinoma, patients with RCC were more likely to develop irAEs (aHR 1.61, 95% CI 1.20-2.18) and sustained eGFR loss (aHR 1.97, 95% CI 1.24-3.12), but not AKI (aHR 1.53, 95% CI 0.97-2.41). Among patients surviving ≥1 years, experiencing a non-renal irAE was associated with a significantly higher risk of sustained eGFR loss (aHR 1.71, 95% CI 1.14-2.57). CONCLUSION: AKI and sustained eGFR loss are common in patients with genitourinary cancers receiving ICIs. irAEs may be a novel risk factor for kidney function decline among patients receiving ICIs.