Temporal BMP4 effects on mouse embryonic and extraembryonic development.

The developing placenta, which in mice originates through the extraembryonic ectoderm (ExE), is essential for mammalian embryonic development. Yet unbiased characterization of the differentiation dynamics of the ExE and its interactions with the embryo proper remains incomplete. Here we develop a temporal single-cell model of mouse gastrulation that maps continuous and parallel differentiation in embryonic and extraembryonic lineages. This is matched with a three-way perturbation approach to target signalling from the embryo proper, the ExE alone, or both. We show that ExE specification involves early spatial and transcriptional bifurcation of uncommitted ectoplacental cone cells and chorion progenitors. Early BMP4 signalling from chorion progenitors is required for proper differentiation of uncommitted ectoplacental cone cells and later for their specification towards trophoblast giant cells. We also find biphasic regulation by BMP4 in the embryo. The early ExE-originating BMP4 signal is necessary for proper mesoendoderm bifurcation and for allantois and primordial germ cell specification. However, commencing at embryonic day 7.5, embryo-derived BMP4 restricts the primordial germ cell pool size by favouring differentiation of their extraembryonic mesoderm precursors towards an allantois fate. ExE and embryonic tissues are therefore entangled in time, space and signalling axes, highlighting the importance of their integrated understanding and modelling in vivo and in vitro.

Methods of In Ovo and Ex Ovo Ostrich Embryo Culture with Observations on the Development and Maturation of the Chorioallantoic Membrane.

Culture of shell-free and windowed eggs for drug testing and other experiments has been perfected for smaller eggs such as those of chickens, where the developing blood vessels of the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) become accessible for manipulative studies. However, due to the thickness and hardness of the ostrich egg shell, such techniques are not applicable. Using a tork craft mini rotary and a drill bit, we established windowed egg, in-shell-membrane windowed egg, and in-shell-membrane shell-free methods in the ostrich egg, depending on whether the shell membranes were retained or not. Concomitant study of the developing CAM revealed that at embryonic day 16 (E16), the three layers of the CAM were clearly delineated and at E25, the chorionic capillaries had fused with the epithelium while the CAM at E37 had reached maturity and the chorion and the allantois were both 3-4 times thicker and villous cavity (VC) and capillary-covering cells were well delineated. Both intussusceptive and sprouting angiogenesis were found to be the predominant modes of vascular growth in the ostrich CAM. Development and maturation of the ostrich CAM are similar to those of the well-studied chicken egg, albeit its incubation time being twice in duration.

The Allantois and Urachus: Histological Study Using Human Embryo and Fetuses.

Relatively little is known about allantois and urachal development in early humans.Serial sagittal histological sections from eight human embryos and fetuses were examined to determine allantois development.At gestational age 6-7 weeks, the primitive allantois consists of an enlarged tube located between the umbilical cord and abdominal cavity, whereas the urachus is not yet developed. At 8 weeks, the allantois gradually withdraws from the distal to the proximal end of the umbilical cord, and both the proximal allantois and the rectum (hindgut) start to develop into the cloaca. At 10 weeks, the allantois was located mostly in the abdominal cavity.The urachus forms from the distal end of the allantois and develops into a closed fibrous cord between the base of the urinary bladder and the umbilicus. The urogenital sinus forms from the proximal end of the allantois.

Expression profile of proinflammatory mediators in the placenta of mares during physiological detachment and retention of fetal membranes.

Physiological parturition is characterized by sterile, inflammatory-like processes. During parturition, the placenta expresses various proinflammatory mediators, such as chemokines and IL-17. Nevertheless, inflammatory processes present in the parturient mare are poorly characterized. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression of selected chemokines and IL-17 in the allantochorion and the endometrium of mares that retained fetal membranes (RFM) and expelled them physiologically. We hypothesized that the expression of these mediators may be altered in the placenta of mares with RFM and result in RFM occurrence. Differences in mRNA expression in the placenta of investigated groups of mares were detected for CCL2, CCL3, CCL4, CCL8, CXCL1, CXCL8, CXCL10, CX3CL1 and IL-17. There were no differences in mRNA expression of CCL5 and CXCL6. Gene ontology network analysis showed enrichment in genes related to leukocyte migration, cell chemotaxis and response to chemokine in tissues of RFM mares. Analysis of association network suggested denotations between CXCL6, CXCL8, CXCL1, CCL5, CCL4, CX3CL1 and CXCL10. Moreover, possible inhibition of CXCL10 by IL-17A and prostaglandin peroxide synthase 2 (PTGS2) by CXCL1 was detected. Our results suggest that, based on differences in chemokines and IL-17 expression, recruited subsets of leukocytes might differ between the analyzed groups of mares, which in turn may impair the separation of fetal membranes in the group of RFM mares. In addition, the results of the expression analysis suggest that macrophages might be one of the most abundant cells infiltrating the equine placenta during the expulsion of fetal membranes. Furthermore, we suspect that the synthesis of PTGS2 might be inhibited in mares with RFM.

Success rates of inoculation of the various compartments of embryonated chicken eggs at different incubation days.

Inoculation of embryonated chicken eggs has been widely used during the past decades; however, inoculation success rates have not been investigated systematically. In this study named success rates were assessed in brown eggs incubated between 5 and 19 days, which were inoculated with 0.2 ml methylene blue per egg. Inoculations were performed in a simple and fully standardized way. Five embryonic compartments were targeted blindly (amniotic cavity, embryo, allantoic cavity, albumen and yolk) with needles of four different lengths; albumen and yolk were targeted with eggs in upside down position. Three compartments were inoculated within sight (air chamber, chorioallantoic membrane and blood vessel). Twenty embryos were used per incubation day, intended deposition site and needle length. Success rates were assessed by visual inspection after breaking the eggs. The inoculations targeting albumen, yolk, amniotic cavity and embryo yielded low scores. Magnetic resonance imaging was performed to elucidate the reason(s) for these low success rates: needles used were of appropriate length, but embryo and amniotic cavity had variable positions in the eggs, while albumen and yolk rapidly changed position after turning the eggs upside down. The latter led to adjustment of the inoculation method for albumen and yolk. Failures to inoculate compartments within sight were immediately visible; therefore, these eggs could be discarded. Except for the amniotic cavity, full scores (20/20) were obtained for all compartments although not always on every day of incubation. In conclusion, the present study may serve as a guide to more accurately inoculate the various chicken embryo compartments. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Blind inoculation of embryonated egg compartments was successful, except for the amniotic cavity. MRI showed rapid position change of albumen and yolk after turning eggs upside down. In ovo vaccination against Marek's disease might be improved by using 38 mm needles.

Changes in the morphometry of the uterus, ovary, and foetus, and biochemistry of allantoic and amniotic membrane fluids of Yankasa ewes across the gestation period.

This study evaluated the uterine and fetal morphometric changes and fetal membrane fluids biochemistry across the gestation of Yankasa sheep. The amniotic and allantoic fluids are actively involved in the constant physiologic exchange between the fetus and maternal circulation. Hence, the knowledge regarding changes in the composition of fetal membrane fluids is important for understanding fetal metabolism, and the diagnosis of pathophysiological conditions during gestation. Gravid uteri from 37 ewes and their corresponding ovaries were sampled. The number and size of the placentomes in the second and third terms of gestation were significantly higher relative to the first term. The total protein, albumin, glucose, urea, creatinine, and calcium levels as well as alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities were higher in the allantoic fluid. In the allantoic fluid, the levels of total protein, globulin, and the activity levels of ALT and AST increased progressively with the advancement of gestation; contrarily, the levels of calcium, chloride, and the activity level of ALT decreased. For the amniotic fluid, the levels of total protein, globulin, urea, calcium, and the enzyme activities in the second and third terms did not differ but were higher than the level in the first term of gestation. In addition, the most significant increases in creatinine level and white blood cell count were observed in the third term of gestation. Therefore, notable differences in the levels of ALT, AST, total proteins, glucose, urea, creatinine, and WBC counts were observed in the two fetal membrane fluids.

TMED2/emp24 is required in both the chorion and the allantois for placental labyrinth layer development.

TMED2, a member of the transmembrane emp24 domain (TMED) family, is required for transport of cargo proteins between the ER and Golgi. TMED2 is also important for normal morphogenesis of mouse embryos and their associated placenta, and in fact Tmed2 homozygous mutant embryos arrest at mid-gestation due to a failure of placental labyrinth layer formation. Differentiation of the placental labyrinth layer depends on chorioallantoic attachment (contact between the chorion and allantois), and branching morphogenesis (mingling of cells from these two tissues). Since Tmed2 mRNA was found in both the chorion and allantois, and 50% of Tmed2 homozygous mutant embryos failed to undergo chorioallantoic attachment, the tissue-specific requirement of Tmed2 during placental labyrinth layer formation remained a mystery. Herein, we report differential localization of TMED2 protein in the chorion and allantois, abnormal ER retention of Fibronectin in Tmed2 homozygous mutant allantoises and cell-autonomous requirement for Tmed2 in the chorion for chorioallantoic attachment and fusion. Using an ex vivo model of explanted chorions and allantoises, we showed that chorioallantoic attachment failed to occur in 50% of samples when homozygous mutant chorions were recombined with wild type allantoises. Furthermore, though expression of genes associated with trophoblast differentiation was maintained in Tmed2 mutant chorions with chorioallantoic attachment, expression of these genes was attenuated. In addition, Tmed2 homozygous mutant allantoises could undergo branching morphogenesis, however the region of mixing between mutant and wild type cells was reduced, and expression of genes associated with trophoblast differentiation was also attenuated. Our data also suggest that Fibronectin is a cargo protein of TMED2 and indicates that Tmed2 is required cell-autonomously and non-autonomously in the chorion and the allantois for placental labyrinth layer formation.

Changes in the Prevalence of Embryologic Remnants in Umbilical Cord With Gestational Age.

The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of embryologic remnants in umbilical cords of different gestational ages. Sections from 392 umbilical cords were examined using light microscopy. Of these, 52% contained at least 1 remnant, most commonly of the allantoic duct type. Although there was a significant decrease in vitelline duct remnants over increasing gestational age, from 11% at weeks 11-25 to 1.6% at weeks 36-42 (P = .009; χ2 test), the allantoic duct remnants remained constant in prevalence irrespective of gestational age.

Proteomic analysis of amniotic and allantoic fluid from buffaloes during foetal development.

The objective of this study was to describe the dynamic changes in protein composition and protein abundance in amniotic and allantoic fluids from buffaloes during gestation. Amniotic and allantoic fluids were collected during the first, second and third trimesters of gestation. The foetuses were measured and weighed. Fluid samples were centrifuged at 800 g for 10 min and then at 10,000 g for 60 min at 4°C. The supernatant was collected to determine the total protein concentration. Based on total protein concentration, an aliquot (50 µg) was used for in-solution tryptic digestion, and mass spectrometry analysis (nano-LC-MS/MS) was performed. A multivariate statistical analysis of the proteomic data was conducted. Across the different stages of buffalo gestation, fifty-one proteins were found in the amniotic fluid, and twenty-one were found in the allantoic fluid. A total of twelve proteins were common among the stages, and four presented significant differences (VIP score α > 1). Fibronectin and alpha-1-antiproteinase were more abundant in the amniotic fluid than in the allantoic fluid. Alpha-2-macroglobulin and alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein were more abundant in the allantoic fluid than in the amniotic fluid. Alpha-2-macroglobulin participates in remodelling and growth of the uterus at beginning of the gestation (first trimester), and these findings indicate that can serve as a potential tool for the early diagnosis of pregnancy in buffaloes.

STELLA collaborates in distinct mesendodermal cell subpopulations at the fetal-placental interface in the mouse gastrula.

The allantois-derived umbilical component of the chorio-allantoic placenta shuttles fetal blood to and from the chorion, thereby ensuring fetal-maternal exchange. The progenitor populations that establish and supply the fetal-umbilical interface lie, in part, within the base of the allantois, where the germ line is claimed to segregate from the soma. Results of recent studies in the mouse have reported that STELLA (DPPA-3, PGC7) co-localizes with PRDM1 (BLIMP1), the bimolecular signature of putative primordial germ cells (PGCs) throughout the fetal-placental interface. Thus, if PGCs form extragonadally within the posterior region of the mammal, they cannot be distinguished from the soma on the basis of these proteins. We used immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, and confocal microscopy of the mouse gastrula to co-localize STELLA with a variety of gene products, including pluripotency factor OCT-3/4, mesendoderm-associated T and MIXl1, mesendoderm- and endoderm-associated FOXa2 and hematopoietic factor Runx1. While a subpopulation of cells localizing OCT-3/4 was always found independently of STELLA, STELLA always co-localized with OCT-3/4. Despite previous reports that T is involved in specification of the germ line, co-localization of STELLA and T was detected only in a small subset of cells in the base of the allantois. Slightly later in the hindgut lip, STELLA+/(OCT-3/4+) co-localized with FOXa2, as well as with RUNX1, indicative of definitive endoderm and hemangioblasts, respectively. STELLA was never found with MIXl1. On the basis of these and previous results, we conclude that STELLA identifies at least five distinct cell subpopulations within the allantois and hindgut, where they may be involved in mesendodermal differentiation and hematopoiesis at the posterior embryonic-extraembryonic interface. These data provide a new point of departure for understanding STELLA's potential roles in building the fetal-placental connection.

Brachyury drives formation of a distinct vascular branchpoint critical for fetal-placental arterial union in the mouse gastrula.

How the fetal-placental arterial connection is made and positioned relative to the embryonic body axis, thereby ensuring efficient and directed blood flow to and from the mother during gestation, is not known. Here we use a combination of genetics, timed pharmacological inhibition in living mouse embryos, and three-dimensional modeling to link two novel architectural features that, at present, have no status in embryological atlases. The allantoic core domain (ACD) is the extraembryonic extension of the primitive streak into the allantois, or pre-umbilical tissue; the vessel of confluence (VOC), situated adjacent to the ACD, is an extraembryonic vessel that marks the site of fetal-placental arterial union. We show that genesis of the fetal-placental connection involves the ACD and VOC in a series of steps, each one dependent upon the last. In the first, Brachyury (T) ensures adequate extension of the primitive streak into the allantois, which in turn designates the allantoic-yolk sac junction. Next, the streak-derived ACD organizes allantoic angioblasts to the axial junction; upon signaling from Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor-1 (FGFR1), these endothelialize and branch, forming a sprouting VOC that unites the umbilical and omphalomesenteric arteries with the fetal dorsal aortae. Arterial union is followed by the appearance of the medial umbilical roots within the VOC, which in turn designate the correct axial placement of the lateral umbilical roots/common iliac arteries. In addition, we show that the ACD and VOC are conserved across Placentalia, including humans, underscoring their fundamental importance in mammalian biology. We conclude that T is required for correct axial positioning of the VOC via the primitive streak/ACD, while FGFR1, through its role in endothelialization and branching, further patterns it. Together, these genetic, molecular and structural elements safeguard the fetus against adverse outcomes that can result from vascular mispatterning of the fetal-placental arterial connection.

Evaluation of full S1 gene sequencing of classical and variant infectious bronchitis viruses extracted from allantoic fluid and FTA cards.

Sequence variability in the S1 gene determines the genotype of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) strains. A single RT-PCR assay was developed to amplify and sequence the full S1 gene for six classical and variant IBVs (M41, D274, 793B, IS/885/00, IS/1494/06 and Q1) enriched in allantoic fluid (AF) or the same AF inoculated onto Flinders Technology Association (FTA) cards. Representative strains from each genotype were grown in specific-pathogen-free eggs and RNA was extracted from AF. Full S1 gene amplification was achieved using primer A and primer 22.51. Products were sequenced using primers A, 1050+, 1380+ and SX3+ to obtain short sequences covering the full gene. Following serial dilutions of AF, detection limits of the partial assay were higher than those of the full S1 gene. Partial S1 sequences exhibited higher-than-average nucleotide similarity percentages (79%; 352 bp) compared to full S1 sequences (77%; 1756 bp), suggesting that full S1 analysis allows greater strain differentiation. For IBV detection from AF-inoculated FTA cards, four serotypes were incubated for up to 21 days at three temperatures, 4°C, room temperature (approximately 24°C) and 40°C. RNA was extracted and tested with partial and full S1 protocols. Through partial sequencing, all IBVs were successfully detected at all sampling points and storage temperatures. In contrast, using full S1 sequencing it was not possible to amplify the gene beyond 14 days or when stored at 40°C. Data presented show that for full S1 sequencing, a substantial amount of RNA is needed. Field samples collected onto FTA cards are unlikely to yield such quantity or quality. ABBREVIATIONS: AF: allantoic fluid; CD50: ciliostatic dose 50; FTA: Flinders Technology Association; IB: infectious bronchitis; IBV: infectious bronchitis virus.

PRDM1/BLIMP1 is widely distributed to the nascent fetal-placental interface in the mouse gastrula.

BACKGROUND: PRDM1 is a transcriptional repressor that contributes to primordial germ cell (PGC) development. During early gastrulation, epiblast-derived PRDM1 is thought to be restricted to a lineage-segregated germ line in the allantois. However, given recent findings that PGCs overlap an allantoic progenitor pool that contributes widely to the fetal-umbilical interface, posterior PRDM1 may also contribute to soma. RESULTS: Within the posterior mouse gastrula (early streak, 12-s stages, embryonic days ∼6.75-9.0), PRDM1 localized to all tissues containing putative PGCs; however, PRDM1 was also found in all three primary germ layers, their derivatives, and two presumptive growth centers, the allantoic core domain and ventral ectodermal ridge. While PRDM1 and STELLA colocalized predominantly within the hindgut, where putative PGCs reside, other colocalizing cells were found in non-PGC sites. Additional PRDM1 and STELLA cells were found independent of each other throughout the posterior region, including the hindgut. The Prdm1-Cre-driven reporter supported PRDM1 localization in the majority of sites; however, some Prdm1 descendants were found in sites independent of PRDM1 protein, including allantoic mesothelium and hindgut endoderm. CONCLUSIONS: Posterior PRDM1 contributes more broadly to the developing fetal-maternal connection than previously recognized, and PRDM1 and STELLA, while overlapping in putative PGCs, also co-localize in several other tissues. Developmental Dynamics 246:50-71, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Type 1 and 3 inositol trisphosphate receptors are required for extra-embryonic vascular development.

The embryonic-maternal interface of the placental labyrinth, allantois, and yolk sac are vital during embryogenesis; however, the precise mechanism underlying the vascularization of these structures remains unknown. Herein we focus on the role of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptors (IP3R), which are intracellular Ca(2+) release channels, in placentation. Double knockout (DKO) of type 1 and 3 IP3Rs (IP3R1 and IP3R3, respectively) in mice resulted in embryonic lethality around embryonic day (E) 11.5. Because IP3R1 and IP3R3 were co-expressed in endothelial cells in the labyrinth, allantois, and yolk sac, we investigated extra-embryonic vascular development in IP3R1- and IP3R3-DKO mice. The formation of chorionic plates and yolk sac vessels seemed dysregulated around the timing of the chorio-allantoic attachment, immediately followed by the disorganization of allantoic vessels, the decreased expression of the spongiotrophoblast cell marker Tpbpa and the growth retardation of the embryos in DKO mice. Fluorescent immunohistochemistry demonstrated downregulation of a vascular endothelial marker, CD31, in labyrinth embryonic vessels and poor elongation of extra-embryonic mesoderm into the labyrinth layer in DKO placenta, whereas the branching of the DKO chorionic trophoblast was initiated. In addition, allantoic and yolk sac vessels in extra-embryonic tissues were less remodeled in DKO mice. In vitro endothelial cord formation and migration activities of cultured vascular endothelial cells derived from human umbilical vein were downregulated under the inhibition of IP3R. Our results suggest that IP3R1 and IP3R3 are required for extra-embryonic vascularization in the placenta, allantois, and yolk sac. This is the first demonstration of the essential role of IP3/IP3Rs signaling in the development of the vasculature at the embryonic-maternal interface.

Essential role of the ERK/MAPK pathway in blood-placental barrier formation.

The mammalian genome contains two ERK/MAP kinase kinase genes, Map2k1 and Map2k2, which encode dual-specificity kinases responsible for ERK activation. Loss of Map2k1 function in mouse causes embryonic lethality due to placental defects, whereas Map2k2 mutants have a normal lifespan. The majority of Map2k1(+/-) Map2k2(+/-) embryos die during gestation from the underdevelopment of the placenta labyrinth, demonstrating that both kinases are involved in placenta formation. Map2k1(+/-) Map2k2(+/-) mutants show reduced vascularization of the labyrinth and defective formation of syncytiotrophoblast layer II (SynT-II) leading to the accumulation of multinucleated trophoblast giant cells (MTGs). To define the cell type-specific contribution of the ERK/MAPK pathway to placenta development, we performed deletions of Map2k1 function in different Map2k1 Map2k2 allelic backgrounds. Loss of MAP kinase kinase activity in pericytes or in allantois-derived tissues worsens the MTG phenotype. These results define the contribution of the ERK/MAPK pathway in specific embryonic and extraembryonic cell populations for normal placentation. Our data also indicate that MTGs could result from the aberrant fusion of SynT-I and -II. Using mouse genetics, we demonstrate that the normal development of SynT-I into a thin layer of multinucleated cells depends on the presence of SynT-II. Lastly, the combined mutations of Map2k1 and Map2k2 alter the expression of several genes involved in cell fate specification, cell fusion and cell polarity. Thus, appropriate ERK/MAPK signaling in defined cell types is required for the proper growth, differentiation and morphogenesis of the placenta.

Pharmacokinetics of ceftiofur sodium in equine pregnancy.

Eleven pregnant pony mares (D270-326) were administered ceftiofur sodium intramuscularly at 2.2 mg/kg (n = 6) or 4.4 mg/kg (n = 5), once daily. Plasma was obtained prior to ceftiofur administration and at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, and 24 hr after administration. Eight pony mares were re-enrolled in the study at least 3 days from expected foaling to ensure steady-state concentrations of drug at the time of foaling. Mares were administered ceftiofur sodium (4.4 mg/kg, IM) daily until foaling. Parturition was induced using oxytocin 1 hr after ceftiofur sodium administration. Allantoic and amniotic fluid, plasma, and colostrum samples were collected at time of foaling. Serial foal plasma samples were obtained. Placental tissues were collected. Desfuroylceftiofur acetamide (DCA) concentrations were measured in samples by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Mean (±SD) peak serum concentrations of DCA were 3.97 ± 0.50 µg/ml (low dose) and 7.45 ± 1.05 µg/ml (high dose). Terminal half-life was significantly (p = .014) shorter after administration of the low dose (2.91 ± 0.59 hr) than after administration of the high dose (4.10 ± 0.72 hr). The mean serum concentration of DCA from mares at time of foaling was 7.96 ± 1.39 µg/ml. The mean DCA concentration in colostrum was 1.39 ± 0.70 µg/ml. DCA concentrations in allantoic fluid, amniotic fluid, placental tissues, and foal plasma were below the limit of quantification (<0.1 µg/ml) and below the minimum inhibitory concentration of ceftiofur against relevant pathogens. These results infer incomplete passage of DCA across fetal membranes after administration of ceftiofur sodium to normal pony mares.

Fetal Membrane Ultrastructure and Development in the Oviparous Milksnake Lampropeltis triangulum (Colubridae) with Reference to Function and Evolution in Snakes.

In eggs of oviparous reptiles, fetal membranes maintain developing embryos through the exchange of respiratory gases and provision of water and calcium. As part of a survey of reptilian fetal membranes, we used scanning electron microscopy to study fetal membrane morphology in the oviparous Pueblan milksnake, Lampropeltis triangulum campbelli. The chorioallantois initially is an avascular structure lined by enlarged chorionic and allantoic epithelia. Upon vascularization, the chorionic epithelium becomes greatly attenuated, enhancing the potential for gas exchange; the allantoic epithelium also flattens. The bilaminar omphalopleure of the yolk sac lacks blood vessels, but it becomes vascularized by allantoic capillaries and transformed into an omphalallantois. Upon regression of the isolated yolk mass, this membrane is converted to chorioallantois, equipping it for gas exchange. Allantoic fluid serves as a water reservoir, and we postulate that it facilitates water uptake by establishing an osmotic gradient. Early in development, epithelia of both the chorion and the omphalopleure show apical microvilli that greatly increase the cell surface area available for water uptake. However, these features are incompatible with gas exchange and are lost as oxygen needs take precedence. A comparison of the fetal membranes to those of other squamate species (both oviparous and viviparous) reveals characteristics that are probably ancestral for snakes, some of which are plesiomorphic for Squamata. The widespread phylogenetic distribution of these features reflects their utility as adaptations that serve functional requirements of squamate embryos.

[MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ALLANTOIC PLACENTA IN RATS WITH EXPERIMENTAL LIVER DAMAGE].

The aim of the study was an analysis of the peculiarities of morphological changes of the placenta in rats with experimental chronic hepatic lesion. Liver injury was modeled in 3-month-old sexually mature female rats by 2-fold intragastric administration of paracetamol at a dose of 2.5 g/kg body weight (drug group, n=15) and a single intraperitoneal injection of D-galactosamine at a dose of 250 mg/kg of body weight (toxic group, n=15). Intact rats served as a control. The placenta examined at Day 21 of pregnancy using histological and morphometric methods. Рroliferative activity of placental cells was evaluated with the immunocytochemical method using antibodies against Ki-67 antigen. The membrane permeability in different trophoblast compartments was examined. It was found that experimental chronic liver pathology caused morphological changes in the placenta, which were manifested by a decrease in the area of its labyrinthine portion, maternal sinusoids in the basal area, fetal capillaries and maternal lacunae of the labyrinth. In addition, in the experiments with an intraperitoneal injection of trypan blue it was shown that changes in the liver caused increased permeability of the placental barrier, and reduced the proliferative activity of trophoblast cells.

The proteome of the infectious bronchitis virus Beau-R virion.

Infectious bronchitis is a highly contagious respiratory disease of poultry caused by the coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). It was thought that coronavirus virions were composed of three major viral structural proteins until investigations of other coronaviruses showed that the virions also include viral non-structural and genus-specific accessory proteins as well as host-cell proteins. To study the proteome of IBV virions, virus was grown in embryonated chicken eggs, purified by sucrose-gradient ultracentrifugation and analysed by mass spectrometry. Analysis of three preparations of purified IBV yielded the three expected structural proteins plus 35 additional virion-associated host proteins. The virion-associated host proteins had a diverse range of functional attributions, being involved in cytoskeleton formation, RNA binding and protein folding pathways. Some of these proteins were unique to this study, while others were found to be orthologous to proteins identified in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus virions and also virions from a number of other RNA and DNA viruses.

Recruitment of 5' Hoxa genes in the allantois is essential for proper extra-embryonic function in placental mammals.

The Hox gene family is well known for its functions in establishing morphological diversity along the anterior-posterior axis of developing embryos. In mammals, one of these genes, Hoxa13, is crucial for embryonic survival, as its function is required for the proper expansion of the fetal vasculature in the placenta. Thus, it appears that the developmental strategy specific to placental mammals is linked, at least in part, to the recruitment of Hoxa13 function in developing extra-embryonic tissues. Yet, the mechanism underlying this extra-embryonic recruitment is unknown. Here, we provide evidence that this functional novelty is not exclusive to Hoxa13 but is shared with its neighboring Hoxa11 and Hoxa10 genes. We show that the extra-embryonic function of these three Hoxa genes stems from their specific expression in the allantois, an extra-embryonic hallmark of amniote vertebrates. Interestingly, Hoxa10-13 expression in the allantois is conserved in chick embryos, which are non-placental amniotes, suggesting that the extra-embryonic recruitment of Hoxa10, Hoxa11 and Hoxa13 most likely arose in amniotes, i.e. prior to the emergence of placental mammals. Finally, using a series of targeted recombination and transgenic assays, we provide evidence that the regulatory mechanism underlying Hoxa expression in the allantois is extremely complex and relies on several cis-regulatory sequences.