The nurse apprentice and fundamental bedside care: An historical perspective.

This historical study aims to explain how the transition from student nurse service to fully qualified "graduate nurse" service in the United States in the 20th century affected assumptions about fundamental patient care in hospital wards and provide historical context for current apprenticeship programs. Through analysis of documents from 1920 when student nurse service, a nurse apprentice model, was the norm to 1960 when the nurse apprentice model was waning in favor of registered nurse service, this study found that the replacement of student nurses with registered nurses led to weakened standardization of fundamental bedside care and the introduction of large numbers of unlicensed nursing assistants. While student nurses could perform all the functions of fully qualified graduate nurses, nursing assistants could not, resulting in a separation of fundamental nursing care from the professional nurse role and changes in assumptions and attitudes toward fundamental care. These changes had a negative effect on fundamental nursing care. New apprenticeship programs provide opportunities for improvement.

Revealing historical perspectives on the professionalization of nursing education in Norway-Dilemmas in the past and the present.

The professionalization of modern nursing education from 1850 and forward is closely linked to values and virtues underpinned by Christian ideals, sex-based stereotypes and class. Development in the late 19th century of modern hospital medicine, combined with a scientific understanding of antisepsis and asepsis, hygiene, contagion prevention and germ theory, were highly influential insights to the dominant position of modern medicine in health care. This development constituted a key premise for what nurses, by virtue of being women, and combined with their education, could offer in terms of medical assistance. It enabled them to challenge the prevailing sex-based stereotypes- and class-based hierarchies, allowing modern nursing to retain aspects of both traditional Christian and womanly values, while at the same time adhering to the medical science paradigm. In this paper, we argue that modern nursing education developed in a context characterized by traditional female and religious values, while at the same time being increasingly dominated by the influence of scientific and medical progress. This conflict between traditional and modern values caused dilemmas and tensions as the nursing profession developed. We argue further that similar dilemmas and tensions continue to pervade contemporary nursing and nursing education.

Professor Serara Kupe-Mogwe's contribution to development of the nursing profession in Botswana.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this communication is to pay tribute to a nursing pioneer of our time, Professor Serara Kupe-Mogwe, for her outstanding contribution to development of the nursing profession in Botswana. I pay this tribute in response to the World Health Organization's declaration of 2020 as the Year of the Nurse and the Midwife. METHODS: Data supporting this manuscript were obtained through Internet searches, local newspapers, and interviews with those who knew her. RESULTS: Kupe-Mogwe's contributions to nursing in Botswana are presented. CONCLUSION: The legacy she has left is celebrated and should be remembered. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING AND/OR HEALTH POLICY: The findings have implications for nursing education, nursing leadership, and acknowledgment of women and their contribution.

Un malaise flou en héritage : la construction du savoir infirmier enseigné au Québec.

Introduction : A discussion paper based on a teaching experience, and presenting a reflective viewpoint developed as part of the university nursing course Theory in Nursing.Context : A critical look at the historiography and reference works used in nursing courses.Objectives : To shed new light on the foundations of the nursing discipline by seeking to better integrate the participation of religious communities in the development of nursing knowledge.Method : Analysis of articles from Recherche en soins infirmiers and a reflective approach influenced by an interdisciplinary perspective linking nursing science, history, and the contribution of Pierre Bourdieu’s work.Results : Observation of the complete absence of contributions to nursing knowledge before Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) and of a century-long silence after her.Discussion : Analysis of the observed reflex to disavow the legacy of nursing sisters in Quebec through the analysis of three aspects : the Nightingalian episteme, the historiographical positioning of nurses and historians, and the construction of knowledge based on the experience of the Sisters of Providence at the Hôpital Saint-Jean-de-Dieu.Conclusion : By ignoring the Franco-Catholic origin of the scientific field of nursing, this disciplinary knowledge deprives itself of a powerful nursing model.

Evaluation of Simulation Outcomes.

Simulation has been used in nursing education and training since Florence Nightingale's era. Over the past 20 years, simulation learning experiences (SLEs) have been used with increasing frequently to educate healthcare professionals, develop and increase the expertise of practicing professionals, and gain competency in key interprofessional skills. This chapter provides a brief overview of simulation evaluation history, beginning in the late 1990s, and the initial focus on learner self-report data. Using Kirkpatrick's Levels of Evaluation as an organizing model, four types of SLE evaluation are reviewed as well as suggestions for future research.

From postcard to book cover: illustrating connections between medical history and digital humanities.

This article illustrates the value and impact of collaboration among scholars, archivists, and librarians working across universities and government institutions, and how changes in medium-from a born-physical photograph and printed postcard to a digital reproduction to a simultaneously born-digital and printed book-create new possibilities for scholarly analysis, interpretation, and dissemination, which in turn suggest future directions for research and engagement across fields of inquiry. In doing so, this article argues that history matters by illuminating past networks that, through humanistic inquiry, continue to connect people, ideas, and institutions in the present and into the future.

[Compiling a socio-history of the nursing professional group by looking at the training of nurses and senior nurses]. / Eléments pour l'ébauche d'une socio-histoire du groupe professionnel infirmier. Un fil conducteur : la formation des infirmières et de leurs cheffes.

This article retraces some of the dynamics of the nursing occupational group since its advent at the end of the nineteenth century in France. The guiding thread we will follow is the evolution of the institutional education of nurses and senior nurses. Adopting a socio-historical approach will enable us to understand this intricate process. It takes the form of struggles between different and even opposing views of "the modern nurse." Each view puts forward its own education and socialization model. The constitution of a new segment - that of senior nurses - was a first step toward the group's self-governance. Over time, the professional group would strategically adhere to and combine many kinds of ideologies (such as the humanist aspects of care, the biomedical vision of a nurse's work, or managerial guidelines). Our work is based on a PhD thesis defended in 2018 and on various surveys conducted within both training institutions and hospitals.

[The International School of Advanced Nursing Education, Lyon (1965-1995): A place for the production, dissemination, and development of nursing knowledge in France in the second half of the twentieth century]. / L'École internationale d'enseignement infirmier supérieur (1965-1995). Un lieu de production, de diffusion et de développement des savoirs des soins infirmiers en France dans la seconde moitié du XXème siècle.

The history of nursing also encompasses the history of nurses' professional knowledge, the conditions of its production, and the use of it in both the health system and the city. In what appears to be an undeniable process of development and affirmation of this occupational group due to the emergence of these skills, the creation of the International School of Advanced Nursing Education (École internationale d'enseignement infirmier supérieur ; EIEIS) in Lyon in 1965 represented a major turning point for French nurses, despite it only training a small number of them. This article aims to examine, starting from the roots of this professionalization movement at the end of the nineteenth century, what this unique school brought to them collectively until its closure in 1995. By entering university for the first time, this occupational group, which had until then been under the yoke of different powers (administrative, medical, and religious), became emancipated by learning to be autonomous and even disobedient. Largely open to the world, this school also laid the foundations for a reflection on the possibility of nursing becoming an academic discipline in France, despite its work remaining incomplete due to its closure as a result of a lack of resources needed to continue its activity.

Kaiser's School of Nursing: A 70-Year Legacy of Disruptive Innovation.

A legacy project was launched in 2016 to research, capture, and record the history and voice of Kaiser Foundation School of Nursing alumni. The inspirational stories of these early nursing pioneers emerged within a disruptive and innovative health care system known as Kaiser Permanente. Led by a doctorally prepared nurse director, the new school boldly rejected the dominant social norms of the 1940s by welcoming minorities and offering an unprecedented curriculum that prioritized prevention, health promotion, and wellness over conventional institutionalized sick care models. Kaiser Foundation School of Nursing alumni became Kaiser Permanente's earliest nurse leaders, educators, and care advocates. They helped revolutionize the key concepts of integrated patient care. As early innovators, many graduates pursued advanced degrees and were instrumental in defining expanded nursing roles, including the introduction of nurse practitioners in California. How Kaiser Foundation School of Nursing transcended the traditions and cultural norms of the day offers a reflective narrative on the enduring leadership attributes of disruptive innovation and the nurse executive's role in reimagining care for future generations.

Nursing Practice, Research and Education in the West: The Best Is Yet to Come.

PURPOSE: This paper celebrates the 60th anniversary of the Western Institute of Nursing, the nursing organization representing 13 states in the Western United States, and envisions a preferred future for nursing practice, research, and education. BACKGROUND: Three landmark calls to action contribute to transforming nursing and healthcare: the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010; the Institute of Medicine report Future of Nursing: Leading Change, Advancing Health; and the report Advancing Healthcare Transformation: A New Era for Academic Nursing. Challenges abound: U.S. healthcare remains expensive, with poorer outcomes than other developed countries; costs of higher education are high; our profession does not reflect the diversity of the population; and health disparities persist. Pressing health issues, such as increases in chronic disease and mental health conditions and substance abuse, coupled with aging of the population, pose new priorities for nursing and healthcare. DISCUSSION: Changes are needed in practice, research, and education. In practice, innovative, cocreated, evidence-based models of care can open new roles for registered nurses and advanced practice registered nurses who have knowledge, leadership, and team skills to improve quality and address system change. In research, data can provide a foundation for clinical practice and expand our knowledge base in symptom science, wellness, self-management, and end-of-life/palliative care, as well as behavioral health, to demonstrate the value of nursing care and reduce health disparities. In education, personalized, integrative, and technology-enabled teaching and learning can lead to creative and critical thinking/decision-making, ethical and culturally inclusive foundations for practice, ensure team and communication skills, quality and system improvements, and lifelong learning. CONCLUSION: The role of the Western Institute of Nursing is more relevant than ever as we collectively advance nursing, health, and healthcare through education, clinical practice, and research.

What is a nurse? The Francis report and the historic voice of nursing.

Following the Francis report into shockingly deficient standards of care at an English hospital, this paper examines UK nurse education and revisits the premises on which the professional narrative of nursing was built. The UK government's response to the report is to introduce the "associate nurse" role, to be nationally trained to do fundamental care in place of the registered nurse, and a nursing apprenticeship scheme-on-the-job training for a nursing degree. UK nursing bodies do not address the report's recommendations in regard to registered nurse education; rather, they advocate a further perpetuation of the current system. This shows deep uncertainty about what the "true" nurse is. To those familiar with the Nightingale model that characterised nursing in England and elsewhere for a century before the introduction of Project 2000 in 1986, there is an intriguing historical echo in the Francis report. One might wonder whether Francis is really recommending a return to a virtue-based, practice-driven, nationally standardised version of nursing education developed by Nightingale and evidenced in nursing syllabuses in England and Wales 1860-1977. This paper supports this position, and shows from a review of historical and contemporary evidence that this Nightingale model has current relevance.

The origins of a two-tier profession: a nursing school at a Poor Law infirmary.

Niall McCrae, Lecturer, and Katerina Kuzminska, Postgraduate Nursing Student, Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery, King's College, London, chart the influences of Nightingale's Poor Law infirmary reforms.

"Endeavoring to Carry On Their Work": The National Debate Over Midwives and Its Impact in Rhode Island, 1890-1940.

This article analyzes the national discourse over "the problem" of midwifery in medical literature and examines the impact of this dialogue on Rhode Island from 1890 to 1940. Doctors did not speak as a monolithic bloc on this "problem": some blamed midwives while others impugned poorly trained physicians. This debate led to curricula reform and to state laws to regulate midwifery. The attempt to eliminate midwives in the 1910s failed because of a shortage of trained obstetricians, and because of cultural barriers between immigrant and mainstream communities. A decrease in immigration, an increase in trained obstetricians, the growing notion of midwives as relics of an outdated past, and the emergence of insurance plans to cover "modern" hospital births led to a decline in midwifery.

Reflections on nurse education: past, present and future.

Janet Scammell, Associate Professor (Nursing), Bournemouth University, reflects on the changes in nursing that she has seen since beginning her nursing career 40 years ago.

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN INDIAN NURSES.

This historical overview is a compilation of information from multiple archival sources; it provides a perspective of the course of events contributing to the present nursing shortage among American Indians. The review begins in the late 1800s by identifying educational assimilation efforts, the role offield nurses and field matrons in introducing Western healthcare to American Indians,followed by examples of American Indian nursing programs and early American Indian nurses and their contributions, and concludes with information about current American Indian nursing programs and recruitment efforts particularly the Recruitment and Retention of American Indians into Nursing (RAIN) program, introduced in the 1990s.

Tonks Fawcett.

Some teachers you never forget, carrying their words with you throughout your career. When you talk to Tonks (real name Josephine) Fawcett, professor of student learning (nurse education) at Edinburgh University, you suspect she would be in this category for a lot of her former students.

British nurses' attitudes to electroconvulsive therapy, 1945-2000.

AIM: The aim of the study was to collect and analyse historical material on nurses' attitudes to electroconvulsive therapy in Britain between 1945-2000. BACKGROUND: Electroconvulsive therapy became widely used in Britain from the late 1940s onwards and remains in current use, but became one of the main targets of the 'antipsychiatry' movement of the 1960s and 1970s. DESIGN: A cultural history design was used to recreate the perspectives of mental health nurses in the period under review. METHOD: A range of primary sources including journal articles, textbooks and oral history sources were combined to create a coherent historical account. FINDINGS: The controversy surrounding electroconvulsive therapy created a deep-seated ambivalence towards it among mental health nurses. While a sizeable minority were critical of its use and may have taken steps to avoid involvement with it, most acquiesced in providing the treatment. Recorded incidents of outright refusal to participate are few. CONCLUSION: Mental health nurses' views on electroconvulsive therapy are reflective of the profession's growing knowledge of the use of evidence in debating whether particular therapies should be used.

The process of Danish nurses' professionalization and patterns of thought in the 20th century.

In this article, we address how the professionalization process is reflected in the way Danish nursing textbooks present 'nursing' to new members of the profession during the 20th century. The discussion is based on a discourse analysis of seven Danish textbooks on basic nursing published between 1904 and 1996. The analysis was inspired by the work of Michel Foucault, in particular the concepts of rupture and rules of formation. First, we explain how the dominating role of the human body in nursing textbooks disappears in the mid-20th century. This transformation can of course be attributed to changes in tasks and responsibilities for nurses or to the implementation of increasing amounts of knowledge and theories from other disciplines than medicine into the nurses' knowledge base. However, inspired by Foucault, we consider these historical changes to be the conditions of possibilities and not causes. The second part of the analysis shows that along with 'the disappearance of the body', a second discursive change appears: the role of doctors and medicine changes fundamentally from about mid-20th century. Finally, we argue that this discursive reorganization enabling new patterns of thought to emerge was driven by a professional interest in describing nursing as an independent profession.

The archaeology and genealogy of mentorship in English nursing.

In the United Kingdom, the concept of mentorship has been central to nurse education since the 1980s. Mentorship has become the definitive term used to denote the supervisory relationship of the student nurse with a qualified nurse who monitors and evaluates their skill development in the clinical area. The background against which the concept was established is examined through a consideration of the concepts of archaeology of knowledge and genealogy of knowledge as conceptualised by Michel Foucault. In particular, the Foucauldian concepts of power, discourses and the gaze are used to direct and shape the analysis. The paper explores the interplay of managerial dominance and professionalism and the ways in which mentorship can be used as a means of control and surveillance.

A consistent course of events or a series of coincidences: nursing in Poland from the 19(th) to the 21(st) century.

The development of nursing began in Poland much later than it did elsewhere, for instance in the United Kingdom, the United States, or Germany, and it came up against difficult conditions. After a brief twenty-year period of development between 1918 and 1939, it almost stalled during the war (1939-45), only to be followed by nearly twenty years of chaos. Nursing started to come out of this difficult period at the beginning of the 1960s. The turn of the 21st century saw the emergence of extensive professional development and training opportunities for nurses. This change was brought about as much by political, social and economic issues, health care requirements, and the advancement of science, medicine, the birth of humanitarism, the growth of the feminist movement, the European Agreement on the Instruction and Education of Nurses, the WHO European Strategy for Nursing and Midwifery Education, the Bologna declaration, as well as the activities undertaken by the European Union, the International Council of Nurses, the American and Polish Red Cross, the Rockefeller Foundation, the Polish Association of Nurses, and the professional self-governing body. The transformation of nursing into an independent profession was further boosted by physicians deeply involved in the issue and female pioneers of nursing.