How to play 20 questions with nature and lose: Reflections on 100 years of brain-training research.

Despite dozens of empirical studies and a growing body of meta-analytic work, there is little consensus regarding the efficacy of cognitive training. In this review, we examine why this substantial corpus has failed to answer the often-asked question, "Does cognitive training work?" We first define cognitive training and discuss the general principles underlying training interventions. Next, we review historical interventions and discuss how findings from this early work remain highly relevant for current cognitive-training research. We highlight a variety of issues preventing real progress in understanding the underlying mechanisms of training, including the lack of a coherent theoretical framework to guide training research and methodological issues across studies and meta-analyses. Finally, suggestions for correcting these issues are offered in the hope that we might make greater progress in the next 100 y of cognitive-training research.

Twenty-five years of diabetes distress research.

The term 'diabetes distress' first entered the psychosocial research vernacular in 1995, and refers to 'the negative emotional or affective experience resulting from the challenge of living with the demands of diabetes'. At first the proponents of the concept were hesitant in advocating that diabetes distress was a major barrier to individuals' self-care and management of diabetes. Since then, a burgeoning body of evidence, now including several systematic reviews of intervention studies, suggests that diabetes distress, in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes, across ages and in all countries and cultures where it has been studied, is common and can be a barrier to optimal emotional well-being, self-care and management of diabetes. As a consequence, monitoring diabetes distress as part of routine clinical care is part of many national guidelines. The present narrative review summarizes this research and related literature, to postulate the aetiology of diabetes distress, and thus how it may be prevented. The current evidence base for the management of diabetes distress is summarized, and the next steps in the prevention and management of diabetes distress identified.

Looking back on 25 years of the PSAD study group.

The year 2020 marks the 25th anniversary of the Psychosocial Aspects of Diabetes (PSAD) study group of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. At the time, psychosocial diabetes research in Europe was steadily growing, but not well recognized. By establishing an official European Association for the Study of Diabetes study group, PSAD, for which purpose some hurdles had to be overcome, diabetes psychology became more visible and accessible to the scientific diabetes community. Over the years the PSAD study group has been successful in promoting the quality of research in the field through scientific meetings, mentoring, postgraduate education and publications. Looking back we can conclude that starting the PSAD study group signified an important moment in time, where researchers were joining forces to further the quality of the science, raise awareness of the importance of psychosocial aspects and promote the dissemination of psychological interventions in diabetes care.

Living with diabetes: literature review and secondary analysis of qualitative data.

AIM: To review the published qualitative literature on the lived experience of people with diabetes, describe the emerging findings and research methods over the last 25 years, and make recommendations for future research. METHODS: We describe a 'Next-Generation' mixed-method approach to reporting qualitative data that combines the advantages of traditional qualitative analysis (assessing depth of meaning from participants themselves) with those of descriptive analysis (assessing breadth and representativeness). We used our Next-Generation approach to conduct a secondary analysis of qualitative data derived from a systematic search of PubMed. A formal coding scheme was developed and systematically applied to 2050 respondent quotations contained in the 74 selected articles; inter-rater agreement was high (κ = 0.90). Quotations were aggregated at the level of the article and reported to assess both narratives and numerical counts of the data. RESULTS: The rate of qualitative research on the lived experience of diabetes has increased over the last 25 years. Both positive and negative aspects of lived experience were reported, although the former was less common. Data from many different populations were reported, but most studies emphasized breadth of coverage over depth. Some findings are well established and there is little benefit to repeating these studies. Best practices of qualitative methodology were often not utilized. CONCLUSIONS: The amount of qualitative research in diabetes is substantial and increasing. We recommend that future research be focused on specific understudied topics rather than repeating existing research. We also provide recommendations for how qualitative study methodology can be improved by implementing the Next-Generation approach.

How 25 years of psychosocial research has contributed to a better understanding of the links between depression and diabetes.

This narrative review of the literature provides a summary and discussion of 25 years of research into the complex links between depression and diabetes. Systematic reviews have shown that depression occurs more frequently in people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes compared with people without diabetes. Currently, it remains unclear whether depression is also more common in people with impaired glucose metabolism or undiagnosed type 2 diabetes compared with people without diabetes. More prospective epidemiological research into the course of depression and an exploration of mechanisms in individuals with diabetes are needed. Depression in diabetes is associated with less optimal self-care behaviours, suboptimal glycaemic control, impaired quality of life, incident micro- and macrovascular diseases, and elevated mortality rates. Randomized controlled trails concluded that depression in diabetes can be treated with antidepressant medication, cognitive-behavioural therapy (individual, group-based or web-based), mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and stepped care. Although big strides forward have been made in the past 25 years, scientific evidence about depression in diabetes remains incomplete. Future studies should investigate mechanisms that link both conditions and test new diabetes-specific web- or app-based interventions for depression in diabetes. It is important to determine whether treatment or prevention of depression prevents future diabetes complications and lowers mortality rates.

How has psycho-behavioural research advanced our understanding of hypoglycaemia in type 1 diabetes?

Almost 100 years since the discovery of insulin, hypoglycaemia remains a barrier for people with type 1 diabetes to achieve and maintain blood glucose at levels which prevent long-term diabetes-related complications. Although hypoglycaemia is primarily attributable to the limitations of current treatment and defective hormonal counter-regulation in type 1 diabetes, the central role of psycho-behavioural factors in preventing, recognizing and treating hypoglycaemia has been acknowledged since the early 1980s. Over the past 25 years, as documented in the present review, there has been a substantial increase in psycho-behavioural research focused on understanding the experience and impact of hypoglycaemia. The significant contributions have been in understanding the impact of hypoglycaemia on a person's emotional well-being and aspects of life (e.g. sleep, driving, work/social life), identifying modifiable psychological and behavioural risk factors, as well as in developing psycho-behavioural interventions to prevent and better manage (severe) hypoglycaemia. The impact of hypoglycaemia on family members has also been confirmed. Structured diabetes education programmes and psycho-behavioural interventions with a focus on hypoglycaemia have both been shown to be effective in addressing problematic hypoglycaemia. However, the findings have also revealed the complexity of the problem and the need for a personalized approach, taking into account the individual's knowledge of, and emotional/behavioural reactions to hypoglycaemia. Evidence is emerging that people with persistent and recurrent severe hypoglycaemia, characterized by deeply entrenched cognitions and lack of concern around hypoglycaemia, can benefit from tailored cognitive behavioural therapy.

25 Years of psychological research investigating disordered eating in people with diabetes: what have we learnt?

Disordered eating is a serious and under-recognized problem in people with diabetes. This narrative review summarizes the research contributions made by psychological science over the past 25 years to the study of disordered eating in people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes, and identifies gaps and future directions relevant to both healthcare professionals and researchers. Key focus areas of psychological research investigating disordered eating in people with diabetes have been: (1) defining and classifying types of disordered eating; (2) identifying demographic, diabetes-specific and psychosocial correlates of disordered eating, and developing theoretical models of disordered eating in people with type 1 diabetes; (3) identifying the physical and psychosocial consequences of disordered eating; and (4) developing screening measures to identify disordered eating in people with type 1 diabetes. Psychological science has made significant contributions over the past 25 years to our understanding of the nature of this problem and the multiple factors which may interrelate with disordered eating in people with diabetes. Key areas for further attention include: (1) a better definition of disordered eating subtypes in people with type 1 diabetes; (2) characterizing disordered eating in people with type 2 diabetes; and (3) developing multidisciplinary, evidence-based prevention and treatment interventions for comorbid disordered eating and diabetes.

Key milestones during 40 years of behavioral medicine at the National Institutes of Health.

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) has played a major role in promoting behavioral medicine research over the past 40 years through funding, review, and priority-setting activities and programs including scientific conferences, meetings, workgroups, intramural research, and training opportunities. In this review of NIH activities in support of behavioral medicine over the past four decades, we highlight key events, programs, projects, and milestones that demonstrate the many ways in which the NIH has supported behavioral and social sciences research and advanced the public health while contributing to the evolution of behavioral medicine as a scientific field.

A Brief History of Psychological Theory, Research, and Treatment With Adult Male Sex Offenders.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The goal of this paper is to provide a history of psychological theories, research, and treatment of male sex offenders from the onset of modern approaches that emerged in the 1960s up to the present time. The questions addressed in this paper primarily concern the reasons and justifications for the observed changes. RECENT FINDINGS: Current conceptualizations of the motivations of sex offenders are quite comprehensive with a central focus on deficits in attachment and coping skills. Research now provides an empirical foundation for the issues to be addressed in treatment and for the manner in which treatment is delivered. Advances in theory and research have brought the field of sex offender treatment to the point where the empirical bases point to a structure that, if followed, seem likely to achieve the goal of reduced recidivism.

Can schizophrenia be predicted on the basis of a symptom? A psychopathological appraisal of early detection research in schizophrenia.

Predictive prospective studies of schizophrenia date back to the late 1950s. At the turn of the Millennium, an Australian research group initiated programs of early detection of schizophrenia and early therapeutic intervention. The theoretical foundations of early schizophrenia detection usually remain unaddressed. In this paper, we focus on the issue of prediction of future schizophrenia in the general population on the basis of a symptomatic picture. Several notions used in this research program such as disease, symptom, and clinical staging derive from a medical model, which in our view is not entirely adequate for grasping the nature of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a spectrum of disorders with a shared core Gestalt comprising dis-order of selfhood and intersubjectivity. This core Gestalt has manifold manifestations, often predominantly in the existential or experiential domain. It is not feasible to apply medical concepts to this symptomatically poorly demarcated spectrum for which we do not know robust biological validators. Moreover, there is increasing evidence that the current DSM and ICD criteria of schizophrenia distort the original concept of schizophrenia and are formulated on a very high severity level. This often results in incorrect diagnoses of young help-seeking patients. In sum, it seems more appropriate to detect psychosis among already help-seeking patients than to implement detection programs in the general population. We discuss a reorientation of psychiatry towards more refined psychopathological knowledge and assessment that are needed in order to optimize the treatment of young help-seeking patients.

Adolf Meyer's Influence on Curt Richter: Selection, Support, and Mentoring.

Adolph Meyer influenced Curt Richter from the time Richter became a graduate student in Psychology at Johns Hopkins in 1919 until Meyer retired in 1941. Meyer was on Richter's thesis committee. After Richter received his degree, Meyer selected him to replace J.B. Watson. During the next 20 years, Meyer gave Richter strong support in terms of equipment, laboratory space for animal research, and opportunities to teach medical students, attend clinical rounds, and do clinical research. It is less well known that Meyer also mentored Richter's scientific and professional development. Meyer's mentoring was so successful that Richter adopted the major scientific ideas of Meyer, especially psychobiology, distrust of theory, and respect for experiment. Thus, Meyer's ideas became the framework for Richter's famous research program that produced his major discoveries of behavior exerting homeostatic controls, psychoendocrinology, and biological clocks.

Rethinking the Belmont Report?

This article reflects on the relevance and applicability of the Belmont Report nearly four decades after its original publication. In an exploration of criticisms that have been raised in response to the report and of significant changes that have occurred within the context of biomedical research, five primary themes arise. These themes include the increasingly vague boundary between research and practice, unique harms to communities that are not addressed by the principle of respect for persons, and how growing complexity and commodification in research have shed light on the importance of transparency. The repercussions of Belmont's emphasis on the protection of vulnerable populations is also explored, as is the relationship between the report's ethical principles and their applications. It is concluded that while the Belmont Report was an impressive response to the ethical issues of its day, the field of research ethics involving human subjects may have outgrown it.

"PROPAGANDISTS FOR THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES": THE OVERLOOKED PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN THE CARNEGIE CORPORATION AND SSRC IN THE MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY.

The Carnegie Corporation's role as a patron of the behavioral sciences has been overlooked; its support for the behavioral sciences not only began earlier than the Ford Foundation's but was also at least equally important to their success. I show how the close postwar collaboration between the Carnegie Corporation and the Social Science Research Council (SSRC) to promote the behavioral sciences emerged after a struggle between Carnegie and the Rockefeller Foundation over the direction and leadership of the SSRC. I then focus on three postwar projects Carnegie helped conceive and fund that were publicized as the work of the SSRC: Chase's The Proper Study of Mankind (1948), Stouffer et al.'s The American Soldier (), and the Michigan's Survey Research Center 1952 election study. In each of these projects, Carnegie deliberately muted its own role and promoted the remade SSRC as a major advocate for the behavioral sciences.

Creating a science of homelessness during the Reagan era.

UNLABELLED: POLICY POINTS: A retrospective analysis of federally funded homeless research in the 1980s serves as a case study of how politics can influence social and behavioral science research agendas today in the United States. These studies of homeless populations, the first funded by the National Institute of Mental Health, demonstrated that only about a third of the homeless population was mentally ill and that a diverse group of people experienced homelessness. This groundbreaking research program set the mold for a generation of research and policy characterizing homelessness as primarily an individual-level problem rather than a problem with the social safety net. CONTEXT: A decade after the nation's Skid Rows were razed, homelessness reemerged in the early 1980s as a health policy issue in the United States. While activists advocated for government-funded programs to address homelessness, officials of the Reagan administration questioned the need for a federal response to the problem. In this climate, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) launched a seminal program to investigate mental illness and substance abuse among homeless individuals. This program serves as a key case study of the social and behavioral sciences' role in the policy response to homelessness and how politics has shaped the federal research agenda. METHODS: Drawing on interviews with former government officials, researchers, social activists, and others, along with archival material, news reports, scientific literature, and government publications, this article examines the emergence and impact of social and behavioral science research on homelessness. FINDINGS: Research sponsored by the NIMH and other federal research bodies during the 1980s produced a rough picture of mental illness and substance abuse prevalence among the US homeless population, and private foundations supported projects that looked at this group's health care needs. The Reagan administration's opposition to funding "social research," together with the lack of private-sector support for such research, meant that few studies examined the relationship between homelessness and structural factors such as housing, employment, and social services. CONCLUSIONS: The NIMH's homelessness research program led to improved understanding of substance abuse and mental illness in homeless populations. Its primary research focus on behavioral disorders nevertheless unwittingly reinforced the erroneous notion that homelessness was rooted solely in individual pathology. These distortions, shaped by the Reagan administration's policies and reflecting social and behavioral scientists' long-standing tendencies to emphasize individual and cultural rather than structural aspects of poverty, fragmented homelessness research and policy in enduring ways.

Clinical dysfunction and psychosocial interventions: the interplay of research, methods, and conceptualization of challenges.

I describe the development and course of my research in studying clinical dysfunction among children, adolescents, and adults. This is an autobiographical account that highlights programs of research, career moves, and experiences along the way that were particularly influential. Research on specific topics and the methods to study them were inherently fascinating but invariably led me to broader issues well beyond what I was studying. The research alerted me to how and why current methods, assumptions, and research practices might be constraining and perhaps slightly misguided. My research and specific findings in a given area were not necessarily part of any particular breakthrough but rather helped me see how more, different, and better work was needed. Collaborations with a diverse set of colleagues and models from other disciplines than psychology helped me conceptualize the goals of research on a given topic (e.g., developing evidence-based treatments, reducing the burden of mental illness, promoting a sustainable environment to mitigate climate change) and propose a shift from current practices as a means to obtain them.

Understanding the POW experience: stress research and the implementation of the 1955 U.S. Armed Forces Code of Conduct.

Facing accusations about weak military discipline following the supposedly poor behavior of American soldiers held captive during the Korean War, President Dwight Eisenhower instituted a Code of Conduct for the Armed Services in 1955. In response, military leaders hired numerous social and behavioral scientists to investigate the nature of the prisoner-of-war (POW) experience. These researchers not only challenged official government accounts of POW activities but opened up a new field of study-stress research. They also changed military training policy, which soon focused more on stress inoculation training, and, in so doing, helped lead the shift in psychology away from behaviorism to ego and cognitive psychology. In this sense, my article ties shifts within the social and behavioral sciences in the 1950s to the military history of the early Cold War, a connection generally missing from most accounts of this period.

Little Albert's alleged neurological impairment: Watson, Rayner, and historical revision.

In 2012, Fridlund, Beck, Goldie, and Irons (2012) announced that "Little Albert"-the infant that Watson and Rayner used in their 1920 study of conditioned fear (Watson & Rayner, 1920)-was not the healthy child the researchers described him to be, but was neurologically impaired almost from birth. Fridlund et al. also alleged that Watson had committed serious ethical breaches in regard to this research. Our article reexamines the evidentiary bases for these claims and arrives at an alternative interpretation of Albert as a normal infant. In order to set the stage for our interpretation, we first briefly describe the historical context for the Albert study, as well as how the study has been construed and revised since 1920. We then discuss the evidentiary issues in some detail, focusing on Fridlund et al.'s analysis of the film footage of Albert, and on the context within which Watson and Rayner conducted their study. In closing, we return to historical matters to speculate about why historiographical disputes matter and what the story of neurologically impaired Albert might be telling us about the discipline of psychology today.

Honoring foundational Black psychologists' contributions to research on Black fathers.

Much of the early psychological research on Black fathers and families employed a deficit lens, pathologizing Black fathers as absent and uninvolved contributors to their children's development. As a response, several Black psychologists articulated the need to move away from deficit-based approaches and employ strengths-based and adaptive frameworks to examine the social experiences of Black fathers and their contributions to child development. This transformative work was not only central to advancing research on Black fathers but also a cornerstone in the broader fathering literature. Though the list of foundational architects of Black fatherhood scholarship spans disciplines, we center this article around the contributions of eight Black psychologists-Drs. Phillip Bowman, Cleopatra Howard Caldwell, Anderson J. Franklin, Nancy Boyd-Franklin, Vivian Gadsden, Harriette Pipes McAdoo, John L. McAdoo, and Melvin Wilson. Their collective works and scientific contributions provided a critical lens and articulated a vision for research on Black fathers. In highlighting their contributions, we focus on six thematic areas: (a) conceptual and theoretical advancements, (b) research methods and designs that centered Black fathers, (c) description and contextualization, (d) children's development and well-being, (e) theory to practice and intervention, and (f) scientific cross-pollination and collaborative ethos. Last, we review and highlight research branches and extensions of these foundational roots. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Multicomponent Theories of Hypnotizability: History and Prospects.

This review addresses multicomponent theories of hypnotizability by focusing on 3 important exemplars from the history of hypnosis research: E. R. Hilgard's (1965) Hypnotic susceptibility; R. E. Shor's (1962) Three dimensions of hypnotic depth; and T.X. Barber's (1999) A comprehensive three-dimensional theory of hypnosis. Taken together, they illustrate the variety of hypnotic phenomena examined in research - overt responses, subjective experiences, and underlying processes - and the ways in which evidence about each has implied the existence of multiple underlying components. Particularly highlighted are the different ways in which the theories conceptualize the joint contribution of multiple individual differences. Also covered is relevant later work by other researchers as well as important issues remaining to be resolved.