Building a therapeutic relationship between probation officers and probationers with serious mental illnesses.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to engage in a collaborative process with a variety of stakeholders to develop the Brief Intervention to Promote Service Engagement (BIPSE), which aims to enhance the therapeutic relationship between probation officers and probationers with serious mental illnesses (SMI). METHODS: The BIPSE intervention was developed through a multistage "design for implementation" process, including a series of stakeholder meetings, observations of probation supervision sessions, incorporating existing intervention approaches, and workshopping initial BIPSE components with three randomly selected officers from a specialized mental health probation unit. Acceptability and feasibility of BIPSE components were assessed through focus groups with probation officers, additional observations of probation sessions, and qualitative interviews with probationers with SMI. RESULTS: Two foundational components of the BIPSE intervention were identified during the stakeholder meetings and observations: (1) engagement and (2) shared decision-making. These two components inform and undergird the intervention's third component, strategic case management. During focus groups, probation officers expressed interest in using the modified tools they were given and also saw the benefit of structuring their sessions. Probationers expressed their appreciation for the caring and collaborative nature with which their probation officers approached their sessions. CONCLUSION: Building a therapeutic relationship between probation officers and probationers with SMI is an essential task toward improving mental health and criminal justice outcomes. The BIPSE development and refinement process demonstrates that interventions targeting the therapeutic relationship are acceptable to officers and clients, and can be tailored and feasibly structured into standard probation practices.

Decriminalizing mental illness: specialized policing responses.

De-institutionalization of mental health patients has evolved, over nearly 3 generations now, to a status quo of mental health patients experiencing myriad contacts with first-responders, primarily police, in lieu of care. The current institutions in which these patients rotate through are psychiatric emergency units, emergency rooms, jails, and prisons. Although more police are now specially trained to respond to calls that involve mental health patients, the criminalization of persons with mental illness has been steadily increasing over the past several decades. There have also been deaths. The Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) model fosters mental health acumen among first responders, and facilitates collaboration among first responders, mental health professionals, and mental health patients and their families. Here, we review some modern, large city configurations of CIT, the co-responder model, the mitigating effects of critically situated community-based programs, as well as barriers to the success of joint efforts to better address this pressing problem.

Recruit fitness and police academy performance: a prospective validation study.

BACKGROUND: Police academies need fit recruits to successfully engage in training activities. In a previous retrospective study, we documented that recruits with poor fitness at entry to the academy had significantly lower graduation rates, and we also suggested evidence-based entry-level fitness recommendations. AIMS: To validate our findings in a prospective cohort of police recruits. METHODS: Recruits entering Massachusetts municipal police academies during 2015-16 were followed prospectively until they dropped out, failed or successfully graduated their academy classes. Entry-level fitness was quantified at the start of each training class using: body composition, push-ups, sit-ups, sit-and-reach and 1.5-mile run time. The primary outcome of interest was the odds of failure (not successfully graduating from an academy). We used logistic regression to assess the probability of not graduating, based on entry-level fitness. RESULTS: On average, successful graduates were leaner and possessed better overall entry-level fitness. After adjusting for age, gender and body mass index, several fitness measures were strongly associated with academy failure: fewer sit-ups completed (OR 9.6 (95% CI 3.5-26.3) (≤15 versus 41-60)); fewer push-ups completed (OR 6.7 (95% CI 2.5-17.5) (≤20 versus 41-60)); and slower run times (OR 18.4 (95% CI 6.8-50.2) (1.5 miles in > 15 min 20 s versus 10 min 37 s to 12 min 33 s)). The prospective study results supported previously suggested minimum entry-level fitness (95% graduation rate) and target (98% graduation rate) recommendations. CONCLUSIONS: Push-ups completed and 1.5-mile run time at police academy entry were successfully validated as predictors of successful academy graduation, while sit-ups were also a strong independent predictor in the prospective study.

Development of hearing standards for Ontario's Constable Selection System.

Objective: Develop valid and defensible hearing standards for Ontario constables to ensure safe and efficient operations. Design: Research involved three steps: (1) identification of hearing critical (HC) tasks, (2) characterisation of real-world noise environments where these tasks are performed (3) and establishment of screening criteria and protocols for determining fitness for duty. Study sample: Three panels of subject matter experts (SMEs) from different Ontario police services participated in Steps 1 and 3. Result: Fifty-one HC tasks conducted in 25 different environments were identified. Acceptable levels of speech communication in noise were based on environments with the highest frequency, importance and difficulty ratings. The ability to understand soft speech was also deemed critical. These translated into a 2 dB maximum elevation in the Noise Composite speech recognition threshold (SRT) with the Hearing-In-Noise-Test and a threshold in quiet of 35 dBA or better. Conclusions: Speech communication modelling methodology greatly facilitates the task of developing fitness for duty hearing standards, but participation of SMEs is crucial for face validity.

A systematic review of co-responder models of police mental health 'street' triage.

BACKGROUND: Police mental health street triage is an increasingly common intervention when dealing with police incidents in which there is a suspected mental health component. We conducted a systematic review of street triage interventions with three aims. First, to identify papers reporting on models of co-response police mental health street triage. Second, to identify the characteristics of service users who come in to contact with these triage services. Third, to evaluate the effectiveness of co-response triage services. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review. We searched the following databases: Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, EBSCO CINAHL, Scopus, Thompson Reuters Web of Science Core Collection, The Cochrane Library, ProQuest National Criminal Justice Reference Service Abstracts, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, EThoS, and OpenGrey. We searched reference and citation lists. We also searched for other grey literature through Google, screening the first 100 PDFs of each of our search terms. We performed a narrative synthesis of our results. RESULTS: Our search identified 11,553 studies. After screening, 26 were eligible. Over two-thirds (69%) had been published within the last 3 years. We did not identify any randomised control trials. Results indicated that street triage might reduce the number of people taken to a place of safety under S136 of the Mental Health Act where that power exists, or reduce the use of police custody in other jurisdictions. CONCLUSIONS: There remains a lack of evidence to evaluate the effectiveness of street triage and the characteristics, experience, and outcomes of service users. There is also wide variation in the implementation of the co-response model, with differences in hours of operation, staffing, and incident response.

Improving police conceptual knowledge of Mexico's law on cannabis possession: Findings from an assessment of a police education program.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Policing practices do not reflect recent decriminalization of drug possession in Mexico. We assessed knowledge of cannabis law as part of a police education program (PEP) post-drug law reform in Tijuana. METHODS: Officers took pre-/post-PEP surveys; random subsample (n = 759) received follow-up assessments. Longitudinal logistic regression (pre-, post-, 3-months post-PEP) measured knowledge of cannabis law. RESULTS: PEP increased conceptual knowledge of cannabis law from baseline to post-training (AOR = 56.1, CI: 41.0-76.8) and 3 months post-PEP (AOR = 11.3, CI: 9.0-14.2). CONCLUSION AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: PEPs improve police knowledge of cannabis law. Reforms should be bundled with PEPs to improve policy implementation. (Am J Addict 2018;XX:XX-XX).

Effectiveness of current policing-related mental health interventions: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: There are three commonly used mental health interventions associated with policing: liaison and diversion, street triage and having specialist staff embedded in police contact control rooms. Crisis intervention teams (CITs), already used in the USA, are now attracting wider interest, including in the UK. Investment in these interventions is growing, so it is important to have evidence of their effectiveness. AIM: To conduct a systematic literature review to answer questions about effectiveness of police-mental health service models for responding to people with mental disorder and suspected offending or public safety problems. METHODS: A population/participant, intervention/indicator, comparator/control, outcome (PICO) framework was developed and keywords used to locate research studies within 29 databases. The 3179 results returned were screened by two researchers against preset inclusion and exclusion criteria. This resulted in 23 studies being included from which were taken the study methodology and findings and on which a narrative synthesis was conducted. RESULTS: Twenty-three studies could be included, overall showing a positive impact of the interventions considered, but no well-designed randomised controlled trials to test this optimistic view rigorously. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, rather than indicating that one approach is more effective than another, the review points to the need for a multi-faceted approach within a structured and integrated model, such as the CIT model. This is generally not the current pattern of interventions, and policy makers, service commissioners and providers may wish to review future options. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

What influences perceptions of procedural justice among people with mental illness regarding their interactions with the police?

According to procedural justice theory, a central factor shaping perceptions about authority figures and dispute resolution processes is whether an individual believes they were treated justly and fairly during personal encounters with agents of authority. This paper describes findings from a community-based participatory research study examining perceptions of procedural justice among sixty people with mental illness regarding their interactions with police. The degree to which these perceptions were associated with selected individual (e.g., socio-demographic characteristics), contextual (e.g., neighborhood, past experiences), and interactional (e.g., actions of the officer) factors was explored. The results of regression analyses indicate that the behavior of police officers during the interactions appears to be the key to whether or not these interactions are perceived by people with mental illness as being procedurally just. Implications of these findings for improving interactions between the police and people with mental illness are discussed.

[Unnatural deaths must be investigated better--risk of crimes being missed. Examination of the police and the health care system management of deaths in three counties]. / Onaturliga dödsfall måste utredas bättre - risk att brott missas - Granskning av polisens och sjukvårdens dödsfallshandläggning i tre län.

In 2008 only 55 % of all deaths not deemed to be natural in Sweden underwent a medicolegal autopsy. In the present study we describe and compare the characteristics of unnatural deaths in three counties through review of death certificates for unnatural deaths and, when applicable, corresponding police reports. The majority of unnatural deaths that were not reported to the police were among elderly decedents, with the deaths most often resulting from a fall-related fracture or head injury. One subgroup among these deaths that were not recognized as reportable by the involved physician, estimated by extrapolation to a total of approximately 300 annually, nationwide, was considered to be at elevated risk for a criminal death (homicide). The causes of death in this group were due to, for example, high energy or sharp force trauma, gunshot injury, asphyxia, and drug and/or alcohol intoxication. We conclude that additional training in the handling of unnatural deaths is indicated for Swedish physicians.

Reports of police beating and associated harms among people who inject drugs in Bangkok, Thailand: a serial cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Thailand has for years attempted to address illicit drug use through aggressive drug law enforcement. Despite accounts of widespread violence by police against people who inject drugs (IDU), the impact of police violence has not been well investigated. In the wake of an intensified police crackdown in 2011, we sought to identify the prevalence and correlates of experiencing police beating among IDU in Bangkok. METHODS: Community-recruited samples of IDU in Bangkok were surveyed between June 2009 and October 2011. Multivariate log-binomial regression was used to identify factors associated with reporting police beating. RESULTS: In total, 639 unique IDU participated in this serial cross-sectional study, with 240 (37.6%) participants reporting that they had been beaten by police. In multivariate analyses, reports of police beating were associated with male gender (Adjusted Prevalence Ratio [APR] = 4.43), younger age (APR = 1.69), reporting barriers to accessing healthcare (APR = 1.23), and a history of incarceration (APR = 2.51), compulsory drug detention (APR = 1.22) and syringe sharing (APR = 1.44), and study enrolment in 2011 (APR = 1.27) (all p < 0.05). Participants most commonly reported police beating during the interrogation process. CONCLUSIONS: A high proportion of IDU in Bangkok reported having been beaten by the police. Experiencing police beating was independently associated with various indicators of drug-related harm. These findings suggest that the over-reliance on enforcement-based approaches is contributing to police-perpetrated abuses and the perpetuation of the HIV risk behaviour among Thai IDU.

Preparing Law Enforcement Officers to Engage Successfully with Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Evaluation of a Performance-Based Approach.

Law enforcement officers (LEOs) may use physical force unnecessarily or escalate problem behavior when attempting to gain the compliance of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (Copenhaver & Tewksbury in American Journal of Criminal Justice 44:309-333, 2019). Although specialized training may remedy this problem, the relatively small literature on such training programs indicates the need for further research (Railey et al. in Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 2020). This study used simulations with actors to evaluate the outcomes of performance-based instruction on strategies to promote compliance when LEOs respond to calls involving individuals with ASD. Results for three LEOs and 24 police cadets demonstrated the efficacy of behavioral skills training (BST) for teaching LEOs how to interact more effectively with individuals with ASD. Results also suggested that hands-on training should supplement commonly used forms of didactic instruction.

Fitness characteristics of a suburban special weapons and tactics team.

Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) operators are specialized law enforcement officers who traditionally perform their duties with higher anticipated workloads because of additional body armor, weapons, and equipment used for enhanced operations and protection. This elevated workload increases the need for SWAT operators to improve or maintain their physical fitness to consistently perform routine operations. Typical tasks require trunk rotation, overhead upper extremity use, upper and lower body strength use, and long waiting periods followed by explosive movements while wearing additional equipment. Eleven male SWAT operators from 1 SWAT team performed flexibility, strength, power, and aerobic capacity tests and a variety of job-related tasks. Data were compared with age- and gender-based normative data. Fitness testing revealed that officers ranked high on tests of muscular strength (leg strength, 90th percentile; bench press, 85th percentile); however, body composition (55th percentile), core body strength, and flexibility ranked lower. Furthermore, aerobic capacity and muscular power had a wide range of scores and were also not ideal to support maximal performance during routine operations. These data can assist exercise specialists choose fitness programs specifically for job-related tasks of SWAT operators when creating fitness programs. Fitness programming for law enforcement should focus on improving aerobic fitness, flexibility, core strength, and muscular power while maintaining muscular strength to meet the needs of these specialized officers.

A competence assessment framework for scientific support within policing in England and Wales.

The Association of Chief Police Officers commissioned Skills for Justice to develop a competence assessment framework to support police forces' scientific support units evidence the competence of their staff against nationally agreed standards of competence. This will also help forces on their journey towards ISO 17025 and ISO 17020 accreditation. A six point framework has been developed and published and is now being implemented across many forces.

The collaborative development through multidisciplinary and advocate consensus of an accessible notice of rights for people with intellectual disabilities in police custody.

Background People with intellectual disabilities are over-represented in the criminal justice system. The United Nations' Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) enshrines a right to equal access to justice for persons with disabilities (Article 13, UNCRPD). Accessible information is a key aspect of exercising this right. Yet, many jurisdictions, including Ireland, are yet to develop accessible information for disabled people who may be arrested. Aims This paper describes the collaborative development through multidisciplinary and advocate consensus of an accessible (Easy -to- Read) Notice of Rights (ERNR) for people with intellectual disabilities in police custody in Ireland. Methods Guidelines developed by Ireland's representative organisation for people with intellectual disabilities and examples of international practice were used to develop a draft ERNR by the primary researcher in partnership with an expert from a representative organisation for people with intellectual disabilities. The ERNR was developed thereafter through two focus groups with a view to achieving consensus with a focus on accessibility, accuracy and layout. This included a multidisciplinary focus group with participants from a representative organisation for people with intellectual disabilities, psychology, speech and language therapy, the police force, public health, forensic psychiatry, mental health, law and, subsequently, a focus group of people with lived experience of intellectual disability. Results Progressive development of the ERNR resulted in incremental improvements in textual accuracy as well as the inclusion of more accessible language and imagery. Originality/value This is the first attempt at developing an easy-to-read document relating to the legal rights of suspects in police custody in Ireland and, accordingly, this procedural innovation promises to assist, not just persons with intellectual disabilities, but also those with limited literacy at the point of arrest. The methodology used in the preparation of the document, employing a focus group to achieve consensus with participation from both multiple disciplines and persons with an intellectual disability, is in harmony with the ethos of the UNCPRD. This methodology may usefully be employed by other member states that have ratified the Convention but have yet to develop accessible version of the legal rights and entitlements that extend to arrested persons under their domestic law.

Training with anxiety: short- and long-term effects on police officers' shooting behavior under pressure.

We investigated short- and long-term effects of training with anxiety on police officers' shooting behavior under pressure. Using a pretest, posttest, and retention test design, 27 police officers executed a shooting exercise against an opponent that did (high anxiety) or did not (low anxiety) shoot back using colored soap cartridges. During the training sessions, the experimental group practiced with anxiety and the control group practiced without anxiety. At the pretest, anxiety had a negative effect on shot accuracy for both groups. At the posttest, shot accuracy of the experimental group no longer deteriorated under anxiety, while shot accuracy of the control group was still equally affected. At the retention test, 4 months after training, positive results for the experimental group remained present, indicating that training with anxiety may have positive short- and long-term effects on police officers' shot accuracy under pressure. Additional analyses showed that these effects are potentially related to changes in visual attention on task-relevant information.

Rapport building and witness memory: Actions may 'speak' louder than words.

Building rapport during police interviews is argued as important for improving on the completeness and accuracy of information provided by witnesses and victims. However, little experimental research has clearly operationalised rapport and investigated the impact of rapport behaviours on episodic memory. Eighty adults watched a video of a mock crime event and 24-hours later were randomly allocated to an interview condition where verbal and/or behavioural (non-verbal) rapport techniques were manipulated. Memorial performance measures revealed significantly more correct information, without a concomitant increase in errors, was elicited when behavioural rapport was present, a superiority effect found in both the free and probed recall phase of interviews. The presence of verbal rapport was found to reduce recall accuracy in the free recall phase of interviews. Post-interview feedback revealed significant multivariate effects for the presence of behavioural (only) rapport and combined (behavioural + verbal) rapport. Participants rated their interview experience far more positively when these types of rapport were present compared to when verbal (only) rapport or no rapport was present. These findings add weight to the importance of rapport in supporting eyewitness cognition, highlighting the potential consequences of impoverished social behaviours for building rapport during dyadic interactions, suggesting 'doing' rather than simply 'saying' may be more beneficial.

Use of force by law enforcement: an evaluation of safetyand injury.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the frequency and types of injuries sustained from law enforcement use of force (UOF). The purpose of this study was to examine injury patterns and subject conditions after law enforcement UOF under real-life conditions. METHODS: A retrospective cohort design was used to examine every UOF by a single police department from January through December, 2006. Data were collected from law enforcement UOF forms as well as medical records and included conditions surrounding the UOF, medical histories, and data from emergency department (ED) evaluations and hospital admissions. RESULTS: Of 888 individuals subjected to force during the study period, 86.9% were men and the average body mass index was 25.8. Ages ranged from 10 to 77 years; juveniles comprised 5.6%. Of the types of force used by police, 73.7% were blows with arms or legs; 15.9% were Taser, 4.6% were capsicum spray, 1.7% were K-9, 0.7% were impact weapons, and 0.2% were firearms. Of the 630 (70.9%) with medical records, 78.7% had a substance abuse or psychiatric history. ED evaluations occurred for 187 (21.1% of) incidents. When laboratory workup occurred, 75.5% had positive urine toxicology and 45.9% had positive ethanol levels. Admission occurred in 15.5% (29) of ED presentations (3.3% of all subjects); of these, 9 (31.0%) were for UOF-related injury. Two subjects in the study died: one as a result of firearm injury and one by suicide after UOF; both were declared dead on scene. DISCUSSION: Significant injuries related to law enforcement UOF in one city were rare and the only deaths were related to firearm use. A large percentage of those subjected to UOF had diagnoses of substance abuse and/or psychiatric conditions, and most hospital admissions were for problems unrelated to the UOF.

Tactical medical skill requirements for law enforcement officers: a 10-year analysis of line-of-duty deaths.

INTRODUCTION: In the absence of other data, military Tactical Combat Casualty Care (TCCC) precepts are increasingly being adapted to law enforcement needs. The purpose of this study is to better describe the nature of potentially preventable law enforcement Line-of-Duty Deaths (LODDs) occurring as a result of felonious assaults. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was performed of open source data available through the US Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA) program for the years 1998-2007 inclusive. RESULTS: After applying exclusion criteria, 341 victim officers were included in the study. The most common cause of death was head trauma (n=198), followed by chest trauma (n=90). There were 123 victim officers that suffered potentially preventable deaths; the majority of these injuries involved the chest. Over the 10-year study period, only two officers (0.6%) died from isolated extremity hemorrhage. CONCLUSIONS: The current emphasis of TCCC on control of exsanguinating extremity hemorrhage may not meet the needs of law enforcement personnel in an environment with expedited access to well-developed trauma systems. Further study is needed to better examine the causes of preventable deaths in law enforcement officers, as well as the most appropriate law enforcement tactical medical skill set and treatment priorities.

Barriers to police addressing risk to children exposed to domestic violence.

Children are harmed by exposure to domestic violence (DV) and in extreme cases can become homicide victims themselves. A critical role for police responding to domestic violence calls is to assess risk for future violence. Training and procedural guidelines for assessment and intervention are often focused on adult victims, and children tend to be overlooked. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the current study is to identify the challenges police officers perceive in dealing with children in the context of DV occurrences. PARTICIPANTS, SETTING & METHODS: Interviews with police officers (n = 15) in Ontario, Canada were used to explore police officers' experiences addressing the needs of families experiencing DV. A dual deductive/inductive approach to a thematic analysis at the semantic level was undertaken (Braun & Clarke, 2006) to explore themes. RESULTS: The major themes from the interviews centered on: (a) challenges relating to knowledge, skills, and resources; (b) challenges from discrepancies in required procedures; and (c) challenges associated to police relations with families. These challenges all impact the police response to children in DV occurrences. CONCLUSIONS: Police recognize the challenges they face in addressing children in DV occurrences. The implications for improved practice are discussed and include the need for increased collaboration, awareness, and training.

Implementing Checklists to Improve Police Responses to Co-Victims of Gun Violence.

This qualitative study identifies police interactions with gun violence co-victims as a crucial, overlooked component of police unresponsiveness, particularly in minority communities where perceptions of police illegitimacy and legal estrangement are relatively high. Gun violence co-victims in three cities participated in online surveys, in which they described pervasive disregard by police in the aftermath of their loved ones' shooting victimization. We build on the checklist model that has improved public safety outcomes in other complex, high-intensity professional contexts to propose a checklist for police detectives to follow in the aftermath of gun violence. To build the checklist, we also reviewed the general orders of five police departments to better understand what guidance, if any, is currently given to police personnel regarding how they should interact with gun violence victims.