Disrupting gender norms in health systems: making the case for change.

Restrictive gender norms and gender inequalities are replicated and reinforced in health systems, contributing to gender inequalities in health. In this Series paper, we explore how to address all three through recognition and then with disruptive solutions. We used intersectional feminist theory to guide our systematic reviews, qualitative case studies based on lived experiences, and quantitative analyses based on cross-sectional and evaluation research. We found that health systems reinforce patients' traditional gender roles and neglect gender inequalities in health, health system models and clinic-based programmes are rarely gender responsive, and women have less authority as health workers than men and are often devalued and abused. With regard to potential for disruption, we found that gender equality policies are associated with greater representation of female physicians, which in turn is associated with better health outcomes, but that gender parity is insufficient to achieve gender equality. We found that institutional support and respect of nurses improves quality of care, and that women's empowerment collectives can increase health-care access and provider responsiveness. We see promise from social movements in supporting women's reproductive rights and policies. Our findings suggest we must view gender as a fundamental factor that predetermines and shapes health systems and outcomes. Without addressing the role of restrictive gender norms and gender inequalities within and outside health systems, we will not reach our collective ambitions of universal health coverage and the Sustainable Development Goals. We propose action to systematically identify and address restrictive gender norms and gender inequalities in health systems.

Planning for work: Exploring the relationship between contraceptive use and women's sector-specific employment in India.

While the health-related benefits of contraceptive use for women are well documented, potential social benefits, including enabling women's employment, have not been well researched. We examine the relationship between contraceptive use and women's employment in India, a country where both factors have remained relatively static over the past ten years. We use data from India's 2015-16 National Family Health Survey to test the association between current contraceptive use (none, sterilization, IUD, condom, pill, rhythm method or withdrawal) and current employment status (none, professional, clerical or sales, agricultural, services or production) with multivariable, multinomial regression; variable selection was guided by a directed acyclic graph. More than three-quarters of women in this sample were currently using contraception; sterilization was most common. Women who were sterilized or chose traditional contraception, relative to those not using contraception, were more likely to be employed in the agricultural and production sectors, versus not being employed (sterilization adjusted relative risk ratio [aRRR] = 1.5, p<0.001 for both agricultural and production sectors; rhythm aRRR = 1.5, p = 0.01 for agriculture; withdrawal aRRR = 1.5, p = 0.02 for production). In contrast, women with IUDs, compared to those who not using contraception, were more likely to be employed in the professional sector versus not being employed (aRRR = 1.9, p = 0.01). The associations between current contraceptive use and employment were heterogeneous across methods and sectors, though in no case was contraceptive use significantly associated with lower relative probabilities of employment. Policies designed to support women's access to contraception should consider the sector-specific employment of the populations they target.

Access to women physicians and uptake of reproductive, maternal and child health services in India.

BACKGROUND: Low availability of women physicians in rural areas can compromise women's health care seeking, where need can be greatest. We examined the associations between availability of women physicians and maternal and child health service utilization in India. METHODS: We analyzed cross-sectional district-level data from all 256 districts in 18 states, from India's District-Level Household and Facility Survey (2012-13) and the National Family Health Survey (2015-16). Assessed measures included lady medical officers (LMOs) availability at Primary Health Centers (PHCs, which are largely rural serving), modern contraceptive use, antenatal care (ANC), skilled birth attendance (SBA), maternal postnatal care (PNC), infant PNC, and child immunization. Multilevel regression models nesting districts in states examined associations between LMO availability and health service utilization, adjusting for district-level socioeconomic status (SES) indicators (e.g., women's education, household water access), urbanicity, health insurance coverage and sampled PHCs (15 on average) within districts. FINDINGS: Only 72 of 256 districts (28.1%) reported >50% of PHCs with LMOs. In multivariable models, LMO availability in PHCs was associated with higher district prevalence (%) of modern contraceptive use [ß=0.04 (95% CI: 0.007, 0.08)], 4+ ANC [ß =0.07 (95% CI: 0.008, 0.13)], skilled birth attendance [ß=0.09 (0.03, 0.14) and maternal PNC [ß=0.08 (95% CI: 0.03, 0.12)], but not infant PNC or child immunization. INTERPRETATION: Higher district availability of women physicians is associated with higher maternal health care utilization but not child health care utilization. Improving gender parity in the physician workforce and rural women physician access may improve maternal health care use in India.

Health layering of self-help groups: impacts on reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health and nutrition in Bihar, India.

BACKGROUND: Self-help group (SHG) interventions have been widely studied in low and middle income countries. However, there is little data on specific impacts of health layering, or adding health education modules upon existing SHGs which were formed primarily for economic empowerment. We examined three SHG interventions from 2012-2017 in Bihar, India to test the hypothesis that health-layering of SHGs would lead to improved health-related behaviours of women in SHGs. METHODS: A model for health layering of SHGs - Parivartan - was developed by the non-governmental organisation (NGO), Project Concern International, in 64 blocks of eight districts. Layering included health modules, community events and review mechanisms. The health layering model was adapted for use with government-led SHGs, called JEEViKA+HL, in 37 other blocks of Bihar. Scale-up of government-led SHGs without health layering (JEEViKA) occurred contemporaneously in 433 other blocks, providing a natural comparison group. Using Community-based Household Surveys (CHS, rounds 6-9) by CARE India, 62 reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health and nutrition (RMNCHN) and sanitation indicators were examined for SHGs with health layering (Pavivartan SHGs and JEEViKA+HL SHGs) compared to those without. We calculated mean, standard deviation and odds ratios of indicators using surveymeans and survey logistic regression. RESULTS: In 2014, 64% of indicators were significantly higher in Parivartan members compared to non-members residing in the same blocks. During scale up, from 2015-17, half (50%) of indicators had significantly higher odds in health layered SHG members (Parivartan or JEEViKA+HL) in 101 blocks compared to SHG members without health layering (JEEViKA) in 433 blocks. CONCLUSIONS: Health layering of SHGs was demonstrated by an NGO-led model (Parivartan), adapted and scaled up by a government model (JEEViKA+HL), and associated with significant improvements in health compared to non-health-layered SHGs (JEEViKA). These results strengthen the evidence base for further layering of health onto the SHG platform for scale-level health change. STUDY REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT02726230.

Impact of mHealth interventions for reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health and nutrition at scale: BBC Media Action and the Ananya program in Bihar, India.

BACKGROUND: Mobile health (mHealth) tools have potential for improving the reach and quality of health information and services through community health workers in low- and middle-income countries. This study evaluates the impact of an mHealth tool implemented at scale as part of the statewide reproductive,maternal, newborn and child health and nutrition (RMNCHN) program in Bihar, India. METHODS: Three survey-based data sets were analysed to compare the health-related knowledge, attitudes and behaviours amongst childbearing women exposed to the Mobile Kunji and Dr. Anita mHealth tools during their visits with frontline workers compared with those who were unexposed. RESULTS: An evaluation by Mathematica (2014) revealed that exposure to Mobile Kunji and Dr. Anita recordings were associated with significantly higher odds of consuming iron-folic acid tablets (odds ratio (OR) = 2.3, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.8-3.1) as well as taking a set of three measures for delivery preparedness (OR = 2.8, 95% CI = 1.9-4.2) and appropriate infant complementary feeding (OR = 1.9, 95% CI = 1.0-3.5). CARE India's Community-based Household Surveys (2012-2017) demonstrated significant improvements in early breastfeeding (OR = 1.64, 95% CI = 1.5-1.78) and exclusive breastfeeding (OR = 1.46, 95% CI = 1.33-1.62) in addition to birth preparedness practices. BBC Media Action's Usage & Engagement Survey (2014) demonstrated a positive association between exposure to Mobile Kunji and Dr. Anita and exclusive breastfeeding (58% exposed vs 43% unexposed, P < 0.01) as well as maternal respondents' trust in their frontline worker. CONCLUSIONS: Significant improvements in RMNCHN-related knowledge and behaviours were observed for Bihari women who were exposed to Mobile Kunji and Dr. Anita. This analysis is unique in its rigorous evaluation across multiple data sets of mHealth interventions implemented at scale. These results can help inform global understanding of how best to use mHealth tools, for whom, and in what contexts. STUDY REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT02726230.

Health impact of self-help groups scaled-up statewide in Bihar, India.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to assess the impact of self-help groups (SHGs) and subsequent scale-up on reproductive, maternal, newborn, child health, and nutrition (RMNCHN) and sanitation outcomes among marginalised women in Bihar, India from 2014-2017. METHODS: We examined RMNCHN and sanitation behaviors in women who were members of any SHGs compared to non-members, without differentiating between types of SHGs. We analysed annual surveys across 38 districts of Bihar covering 62 690 women who had a live birth in the past 12 months. All analyses utilised data from Community-based Household Surveys (CHS) rounds 6-9 collected in 2014-2017 by CARE India as part of the Bihar Technical Support Program funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. We examined 66 RMNCHN and sanitation indicators using survey logistic regression; the comparison group in all cases was age-comparable women from the geographic contexts of the SHG members but who did not belong to SHGs. We also examined links between discussion topics in SHGs and changes in relevant behaviours, and stratification of effects by parity and mother's age. RESULTS: SHG members had higher odds compared to non-SHG members for 60% of antenatal care indicators, 22% of delivery indicators, 70% of postnatal care indicators, 50% of nutrition indicators, 100% of family planning and sanitation indicators and no immunisation indicators measured. According to delivery platform, most FLW performance indicators (80%) had increased odds, followed by maternal behaviours (57%) and facility care and outreach service delivery (22%) compared to non-SHG members. Self-report of discussions within SHGs on specific topics was associated with increased related maternal behaviours. Younger SHG members (<25 years) had attenuated health indicators compared to older group members (≥25 years), and women with more children had more positive indicators compared to women with fewer children. CONCLUSIONS: SHG membership was associated with improved RMNCHN and sanitation indicators at scale in Bihar, India. Further work is needed to understand the specific impacts of health layering upon SHGs. Working through SHGs is a promising vehicle for improving primary health care. STUDY REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT02726230.

Evaluation of a large-scale reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health and nutrition program in Bihar, India, through an equity lens.

BACKGROUND: Despite increasing focus on health inequities in low- and middle income countries, significant disparities persist. We analysed impacts of a statewide maternal and child health program among the most compared to the least marginalised women in Bihar, India. METHODS: Utilising survey-weighted logistic regression, we estimated programmatic impact using difference-in-difference estimators from Mathematica data collected at the beginning (2012, n = 10 174) and after two years of program implementation (2014, n = 9611). We also examined changes in disparities over time using eight rounds of Community-based Household Surveys (CHS) (2012-2017, n = 48 349) collected by CARE India. RESULTS: At baseline for the Mathematica data, least marginalised women generally performed desired health-related behaviours more frequently than the most marginalised. After two years, most disparities persisted. Disparities increased for skilled birth attendant identification [+16.2% (most marginalised) vs +32.6% (least marginalized), P < 0.01) and skin-to-skin care (+14.8% vs +20.4%, P < 0.05), and decreased for immediate breastfeeding (+10.4 vs -4.9, P < 0.01). For the CHS data, odds ratios compared the most to the least marginalised women as referent. Results demonstrated that disparities were most significant for indicators reliant on access to care such as delivery in a facility (OR range: 0.15 to 0.48) or by a qualified doctor (OR range: 0.08 to 0.25), and seeking care for complications (OR range: 0.26 to 0.64). CONCLUSIONS: Disparities observed at baseline generally persisted throughout program implementation. The most significant disparities were observed amongst behaviours dependent upon access to care. Changes in disparities largely were due to improvements for the least marginalised women without improvements for the most marginalised. Equity-based assessments of programmatic impacts, including those of universal health approaches, must be undertaken to monitor disparities and to ensure equitable and sustainable benefits for all. STUDY REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT02726230.

Improving primary health care delivery in Bihar, India: Learning from piloting and statewide scale-up of Ananya.

In 2010, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) partnered with the Government of Bihar (GoB), India to launch the Ananya program to improve reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health and nutrition (RMNCHN) outcomes. The program sought to address supply- and demand-side barriers to the adoption, coverage, quality, equity and health impact of select RMNCHN interventions. Approaches included strengthening frontline worker service delivery; social and behavior change communications; layering of health, nutrition and sanitation into women's self-help groups (SHGs); and quality improvement in maternal and newborn care at primary health care facilities. Ananya program interventions were piloted in approximately 28 million population in eight innovation districts from 2011-2013, and then beginning in 2014, were scaled up by the GoB across the rest of the state's population of 104 million. A Bihar Technical Support Program provided techno-managerial support to governmental Health as well as Integrated Child Development Services, and the JEEViKA Technical Support Program supported health layering and scale-up of the GoB's SHG program. The level of support at the block level during statewide scale-up in 2014 onwards was approximately one-fourth that provided in the pilot phase of Ananya in 2011-2013. This paper - the first manuscript in an 11-manuscript and 2-viewpoint collection on Learning from Ananya: Lessons for primary health care performance improvement - seeks to provide a broad description of Ananya and subsequent statewide adaptation and scale-up, and capture the background and context, key objectives, interventions, delivery approaches and evaluation methods of this expansive program. Subsequent papers in this collection focus on specific intervention delivery platforms. For the analyses in this series, Stanford University held key informant interviews and worked with the technical support and evaluation grantees of the Ananya program, as well as leadership from the India Country Office of the BMGF, to analyse and synthesise data from multiple sources. Capturing lessons from the Ananya pilot program and statewide scale-up will assist program managers and policymakers to more effectively design and implement RMNCHN programs at scale through technical assistance to governments.

Does owning a bank account improve reproductive and maternal health services utilization and behavior in India? Evidence from the National Family Health Survey 2015-16.

•Ownership of a bank account is associated with improved reproductive and maternal health services utilization and behaviour.•Observed associations are strongest in states where the utilization of studied services is far below the national average.•No association is found between women's ownership of a bank account and institutional delivery.

Effects of team-based goals and non-monetary incentives on front-line health worker performance and maternal health behaviours: a cluster randomised controlled trial in Bihar, India.

INTRODUCTION: We evaluated the impact of a 'Team-Based Goals and Incentives' (TBGI) intervention in Bihar, India, designed to improve front-line (community health) worker (FLW) performance and health-promoting behaviours related to reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health and nutrition. METHODS: This study used a cluster randomised controlled trial design and difference-in-difference analyses of improvements in maternal health-related behaviours related to the intervention's team-based goals (primary), and interactions of FLWs with each other and with maternal beneficiaries (secondary). Evaluation participants included approximately 1300 FLWs and 3600 mothers at baseline (May to June 2012) and after 2.5 years of implementation (November to December 2014) who had delivered an infant in the previous year. RESULTS: The TBGI intervention resulted in significant increases in the frequency of antenatal home visits (15 absolute percentage points (PP), p=0.03) and receipt of iron-folic acid (IFA) tablets (7 PP, p=0.02), but non-significant changes in other health behaviours related to the trial's goals. Improvements were seen in selected attitudes related to coordination and teamwork among FLWs, and in the provision of advice to beneficiaries (ranging from 8 to 14 PP) related to IFA, cord care, breast feeding, complementary feeding and family planning. CONCLUSION: Results suggest that combining an integrated set of team-based coverage goals and targets, small non-cash incentives for teams who meet targets and team building to motivate FLWs resulted in improvements in FLW coordination and teamwork, and in the quality and quantity of FLW-beneficiary interactions. These improvements represent programmatically meaningful steps towards improving health behaviours and outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT03406221.