Water, sanitation, hygiene practices, health and nutritional status among children before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: longitudinal evidence from remote areas of Dailekh and Achham districts in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic drew hygiene to the center of disease prevention. The provision of adequate water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services is crucial to protect public health during a pandemic. Yet, access to levels of water supply that support adequate hygiene measures are deficient in many areas in Nepal. We examined WASH practices and their impact on child health and nutritional status in two districts before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: A longitudinal and mixed method study was conducted in March-May 2018 and November-December 2021. In total, 715 children aged 0-10 years were surveyed at baseline. Of these, 490 children were assessed at endline. Data collection methods included observations, a questionnaire, stool analysis, anthropometric measurements, water quality analysis, and an assessment of clinical signs of nutritional deficiencies. We conducted 10 in-depth interviews to understand major problems related to COVID-19. RESULTS: Most respondents (94.2%) had heard about COVID-19; however, they did not wear face masks or comply with any social distancing protocols. Almost 94.2% of the households self-reported handwashing with soap 5-10 times per day at endline, especially after defecation, compared to 19.6% at baseline. Water quality was better at endline than at baseline with median 12 to 29 CFU Escherichia coli/100 mL (interquartile range at baseline [IQR] = 4-101) at the point of collection and 34 to 51.5 CFU Escherichia coli/100 mL (IQR = 8-194) at the point of consumption. Fever (41.1-16.8%; p = 0.01), respiratory illness (14.3-4.3%; p = 0.002), diarrhea (19.6-9.5%; p = 0.01), and Giardia lamblia infections (34.2-6.5%, p = 0.01) decreased at endline. In contrast, nutritional deficiencies such as bitot's spots (26.7-40.2%; p = 0.01), pale conjunctiva (47.0-63.3%; p = 0.01), and dermatitis (64.8-81.4%; p = 0.01) increased at endline. The inadequacy of the harvest and the lack of household income to meet households' nutritional needs increased drastically (35.0-94.2%; p = 0.01). CONCLUSION: We found that improved water quality and handwashing practices were associated with a decrease in infectious diseases. However, food security also decreased resulting in a high prevalence of nutritional deficiencies. Our findings underline that disaster preparedness should consider access to adequate WASH, nutrition, and health supplies.

Effect of an Integrated School Garden and Home Garden Intervention on Anemia Among School-Aged Children in Nepal: Evidence From a Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Integrated school and home garden interventions can improve health outcomes in low-income countries, but rigorous evidence remains scarce, particularly for school-aged children and to reduce anemia. OBJECTIVE: We test if an integrated school and home garden intervention, implemented at pilot stage, improves hemoglobin levels among school children (aged 9-13 years) in a rural district in the mid-hills of Nepal. METHODS: We use a cluster randomized controlled trial with 15 schools each in the control and treatment groups (n = 680 school children). To test if nutritional improvements translate into a reduction of anemia prevalence, hemoglobin data were collected 6 months after intervention support had ended. Using structural equation modeling, we estimate the direct and indirect effects of the treatment through several pathways, including nutritional knowledge, good food and hygiene practices, and dietary diversity. RESULTS: The integrated school and home garden intervention did not lead to a direct significant reduction in anemia. Causal positive changes of the treatment on nutritional outcomes, although significant, are not strong enough to impact hemoglobin levels. The program improved hemoglobin levels indirectly for children below 12 by increasing the use of good food and hygiene practices at home. These practices are associated with higher hemoglobin levels, particularly for girls, young children, and in households where caregivers are literate. CONCLUSIONS: Even integrated school and home garden interventions are not sufficient to reduce anemia among school children. Incorporating behavioral change components around food and hygiene practices into integrated garden interventions is important to unlocking their health impacts.

The Resistance Patterns in E. coli Isolates among Apparently Healthy Adults and Local Drivers of Antimicrobial Resistance: A Mixed-Methods Study in a Suburban Area of Nepal.

Evidence-based decision-making to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR) mandates a well-built community-based surveillance system for assessing resistance patterns among commensals and pathogenic organisms. As there is no such surveillance system in Nepal, we attempted to describe the antimicrobial resistance pattern in E. coli isolated from the fecal samples of apparently healthy individuals in Dhulikhel municipality and also explored the local drivers of AMR. We used a mixed-method design with a cross-sectional quantitative component and a descriptive qualitative component, with focus group discussion and key informant interviews as the data collection method. Fecal samples were collected from 424 individuals randomly selected for the study. E. coli was isolated from 85.9% of human fecal samples, of which 14% were resistant to ≥3 class of antimicrobials (multidrug resistant). Of the 368 isolates, resistance to ampicillin (40.0%), tetracycline (20.7%) and cefotaxime (15.5%) were most prevalent. The major drivers of AMR were: lack of awareness of AMR, weak regulations on sales of antimicrobials, poor adherence to prescribed medications, and incomplete dosage due to financial constraints. These findings indicate the need for strict implementation of a national drug act to limit the over-the-counter sales of antimicrobials. Additionally, awareness campaigns with a multimedia mix are essential for educating people on AMR.