Fluorine and Bromine Dual-Doped Nanoporous Carbons: Preparation and Surface Chemistry Studies.

A novel method for the concurrent introduction of fluorine and bromine into the surface of nanoporous activated carbon (NAC) is evaluated. According to the method, the preheated NAC was treated with 1,2-dibromotetrafluoroethane at elevated temperatures (400-800 °C). Potentiometric and elemental analysis, nitrogen adsorption-desorption, scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and 19F solid-state NMR were used to study the NAC microstructure and changes in surface chemistry. The specific modification temperature was found to have a decisive influence on the resulting halogen content of the NAC surface. About 1.5 mmol g-1 of bromine and only 0.5 mmol g-1 of fluorine are chemisorbed on the NAC surface when dual-doped at 400 °C. The fluorination efficiency increases dramatically to 1.84-2.22 mmol g-1 when the process temperature is increased to 500-700 °C. Under the same conditions, the bromination efficiency unexpectedly decreases to 0.66-1.32 mmol g-1. Since halogen-containing groups undergo significant thermal decomposition around 800 °C, the overall halogenation efficiency decreases, accordingly. Both the volume and surface area of the micropores decrease moderately when halogen-containing groups are introduced into the carbon surface layer. Fluorine and bromine are unevenly distributed in the porous structure of the dual-doped NACs, and the outer surface is more halogen-rich than the inner surface of the micropores. XPS and 19F solid-state NMR revealed the selective formation of CF2 groups in the NAC surface layer independent of the temperature. In contrast, the percentage of semi-ionic fluorine in the form of CF groups directly bonded to the π-electron system of the carbon matrix increases significantly with temperature.

Surface chemistry and catalytic activity in H2O2 decomposition of pyrolytically fluoralkylated activated carbons.

According to the proposed pyrolytic method, granular activated carbon (AC) Norit 830 W was functionalized by thermal treatment of AC in hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) gases, pentafluoroethane and 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, at 400-800 °C. This method does not require activation by plasma and photons. Chemical and elemental analysis showed that the pyrolytic treatment provides a loading of 2.95 mmol (5.6 wt%) of fluorine per gram of AC. Nitrogen adsorption measurements indicated that the microporous structure contracted when AC was treated with HFC at temperatures above 400 °C. Thermogravimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) with attenuated total reflectance (ATR), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) demonstrated the evolution of oxygen-containing and fluorine-containing groups to more thermostable groups with treatment temperature. The fluorine-containing groups grafted at high temperature, above 600 °C exhibited the highest thermal stability up to 1250 °C in dry argon. From the data of XPS and solid-state 19F nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy data, the grafted fluorine exists in several types of grafted F-containing groups, the HFC residues. By changing the thermal regime of fluorination, the composition of fluorine-containing groups on a carbon surface can be regulated. Isolated fluoroalkyl groups can be grafted at temperatures of 400-500 °C, while at 600 °C and above, the semi-ionic fluorine groups increase significantly. The hydrophobized surface demonstrated the ability to effectively decompose H2O2 in methanol solutions.

Flavin-induced charge separation in transmembrane model peptides.

Hydrophobic peptide models derived from the α-helical transmembrane segment of the epidermal growth factor receptor were synthetically modified with a flavin amino acid as a photo-inducible charge donor and decorated with tryptophans along the helix as charge acceptors. The helical conformation of the peptides was conserved despite the modifications, notably also in lipid vesicles and multibilayers. Their ability to facilitate photo-induced transmembrane charge transport was examined by means of steady-state and time-resolved optical spectroscopy. The first tryptophan next to the flavin donor plays a major role in initiating the charge transport near the N-terminus, while the other tryptophans might promote charge transport along the transmembrane helix. These artificially modified, but still naturally derived helical peptides are important models for studying transmembrane electron transfer and the principles of photosynthesis.

Spiropyran-Based Photoisomerizable α-Amino Acid for Membrane-Active Peptide Modification.

Photoisomerizable peptides are promising drug candidates in photopharmacology. While azobenzene- and diarylethene-containing photoisomerizable peptides have already demonstrated their potential in this regard, reports on the use of spiropyrans to photoregulate bioactive peptides are still scarce. This work focuses on the design and synthesis of a spiropyran-derived amino acid, (S)-2-amino-3-(6'-methoxy-1',3',3'-trimethylspiro-[2H-1-benzopyran-2,2'-indolin-6-yl])propanoic acid, which is suitable for the preparation of photoisomerizable peptides. The utility of this amino acid is demonstrated by incorporating it into the backbone of BP100, a known membrane-active peptide, and by examining the photoregulation of the membrane perturbation by the spiropyran-containing peptides. The toxicity of the peptides (against the plant cell line BY-2), their bacteriotoxicity (E. coli), and actin-auxin oscillator modulation ability were shown to be significantly dependent on the photoisomeric state of the spiropyran unit.

High-Throughput Miniaturized Synthesis of PROTAC-Like Molecules.

The development of miniaturized high-throughput in situ screening platforms capable of handling the entire process of drug synthesis to final screening is essential for advancing drug discovery in the future. In this study, an approach based on combinatorial solid-phase synthesis, enabling the efficient synthesis of libraries of proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) in an array format is presented. This on-chip platform allows direct biological screening without the need for transfer steps.  UV-induced release of target molecules into individual droplets facilitates further on-chip experimentation. Utilizing a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases (MEK1/2) degrader as a template, a series of 132 novel PROTAC-like molecules is synthesized using solid-phase Ugi reaction. These compounds are further characterized using various methods, including matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) imaging, while consuming only a few milligrams of starting materials in total. Furthermore, the feasibility of culturing cancer cells on the modified spots and quantifying the effect of MEK suppression is demonstrated. The miniaturized synthesis platform lays a foundation for high-throughput in situ biological screening of potent PROTACs for potential anticancer activity and offers the potential for accelerating the drug discovery process by integrating miniaturized synthesis and biological steps on the same array.

In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of Photocontrolled Biologically Active Compounds - Potential Drug Candidates for Cancer Photopharmacology.

Photocontrolled, biologically active compounds are an emerging class of "smart" drug candidates. They provide additional safety in systemic chemotherapy due to their precise spatiotemporal activation by directing a benign, non-ionizable light to a specific location within the patient's body. This paper presents a set of methods to evaluate the in vitro potency and ex vivo efficiency of the photoactivation of photocontrolled, biologically active compounds as well as the in vivo efficacy at early stages of drug development. The methodology is applied to anticancer cytotoxic peptides, namely, the diarylethene-containing analogs of a known antibiotic, gramicidin S. The experiments are performed using 2D (adherent cells) and 3D (spheroids) cell cultures of a cancer cell line (Lewis lung carcinoma, LLC), live tissue surrogates (pork meat mince), and an allograft cancer model (subcutaneous LLC) in immunocompetent mice. The selection of the most effective compounds and estimation of realistic phototherapeutic windows are performed via automated fluorescence microscopy. The photoactivation efficiency at varying illumination regimens is determined at different depths in a model tissue, and the optimal light dosage is applied in the final therapeutic in vivo experiment.

Structural Dissection of Epsin-1 N-Terminal Helical Peptide: The Role of Hydrophobic Residues in Modulating Membrane Curvature.

Spatiotemporal structural alterations in cellular membranes are the hallmark of many vital processes. In these cellular events, the induction of local changes in membrane curvature often plays a pivotal role. Many amphiphilic peptides are able to modulate membrane curvature, but there is little information on specific structural factors that direct the curvature change. Epsin-1 is a representative protein thought to initiate invagination of the plasma membrane upon clathrin-coated vesicles formation. Its N-terminal helical segment (EpN18) plays a key role in inducing positive membrane curvature. This study aimed to elucidate the essential structural features of EpN18 in order to better understand general curvature-inducing mechanisms, and to design effective tools for rationally controlling membrane curvature. Structural dissection of peptides derived from EpN18 revealed the decisive contribution of hydrophobic residues to (i) enhancing membrane interactions, (ii) helix structuring, (iii) inducing positive membrane curvature, and (iv) loosening lipid packing. The strongest effect was obtained by substitution with leucine residues, as this EpN18 analog showed a marked ability to promote the influx of octa-arginine cell-penetrating peptides into living cells.

Length matters: Functional flip of the short TatA transmembrane helix.

The twin arginine translocase (Tat) exports folded proteins across bacterial membranes. The putative pore-forming or membrane-weakening component (TatAd in B. subtilis) is anchored to the lipid bilayer via an unusually short transmembrane α-helix (TMH), with less than 16 residues. Its tilt angle in different membranes was analyzed under hydrophobic mismatch conditions, using synchrotron radiation circular dichroism and solid-state NMR. Positive mismatch (introduced either by reconstitution in short-chain lipids or by extending the hydrophobic TMH length) increased the helix tilt of the TMH as expected. Negative mismatch (introduced either by reconstitution in long-chain lipids or by shortening the TMH), on the other hand, led to protein aggregation. These data suggest that the TMH of TatA is just about long enough for stable membrane insertion. At the same time, its short length is a crucial factor for successful translocation, as demonstrated here in native membrane vesicles using an in vitro translocation assay. Furthermore, when reconstituted in model membranes with negative spontaneous curvature, the TMH was found to be aligned parallel to the membrane surface. This intrinsic ability of TatA to flip out of the membrane core thus seems to play a key role in its membrane-destabilizing effect during Tat-dependent translocation.

Highly Fluorinated Peptide Probes with Enhanced In Vivo Stability for 19 F-MRI.

A labeling strategy for in vivo 19 F-MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) based on highly fluorinated, short hydrophilic peptide probes, is developed. As dual-purpose probes, they are functionalized further by a fluorophore and an alkyne moiety for bioconjugation. High fluorination is achieved by three perfluoro-tert-butyl groups, introduced into asparagine analogues by chemically stable amide bond linkages. d-amino acids and ß-alanine in the sequences endow the peptide probes with low cytotoxicity and high serum stability. This design also yielded unstructured peptides, rendering all 27 19 F substitutions chemically equivalent, giving rise to a single 19 F-NMR resonance with <10 Hz linewidth. The resulting performance in 19 F-MRI is demonstrated for six different peptide probes. Using fluorescence microscopy, these probes are found to exhibit high stability and long circulation times in living zebrafish embryos. Furthermore, the probes can be conjugated to bovine serum albumin with only amoderate increase in 19 F-NMR linewidth to ≈30 Hz. Overall, these peptide probes are hence suitable for in vivo 19 F-MRI applications.

Towards in vivo photomediated delivery of anticancer peptides: Insights from pharmacokinetic and -dynamic data.

An in vivo study of a photoswitchable cytotoxic peptide LMB040 has been undertaken on a chemically induced hepatocellular carcinoma model in immunocompetent rats. We analysed the pharmacokinetic profile of the less toxic photoform ("ring-closed" dithienylethene) of the compound in tumors, plasma, and healthy liver. Accordingly, the peptide can reach a tumor concentration sufficiently high to exert a cytotoxic effect upon photoconversion into the more active ("ring-open") photoform. Tissue morphology, histology, redox state of the liver, and hepatic biochemical parameters in blood serum were analysed upon treatment with (i) the less active photoform, (ii) the in vivo light-activated alternative photoform, and (iii) compared with a reference chemotherapeutic 5-fluorouracil. We found that application of the less toxic form followed by a delayed in vivo photoconversion into the more toxic ring-open form of LMB040 led to a higher overall survival of the animals, and signs of enhanced immune response were observed compared to the untreated animals.

Probing and Manipulating the Lateral Pressure Profile in Lipid Bilayers Using Membrane-Active Peptides-A Solid-State 19F NMR Study.

The lateral pressure profile constitutes an important physical property of lipid bilayers, influencing the binding, insertion, and function of membrane-active peptides, such as antimicrobial peptides. In this study, we demonstrate that the lateral pressure profile can be manipulated using the peptides residing in different regions of the bilayer. A 19F-labeled analogue of the amphiphilic peptide PGLa was used to probe the lateral pressure at different depths in the membrane. To evaluate the lateral pressure profile, we measured the orientation of this helical peptide with respect to the membrane using solid-state 19F-NMR, which is indicative of its degree of insertion into the bilayer. Using this experimental approach, we observed that the depth of insertion of the probe peptide changed in the presence of additional peptides and, furthermore, correlated with their location in the membrane. In this way, we obtained a tool to manipulate, as well as to probe, the lateral pressure profile in membranes.

In Vivo Behavior of the Antibacterial Peptide Cyclo[RRRWFW], Explored Using a 3-Hydroxychromone-Derived Fluorescent Amino Acid.

Labeling biomolecules with fluorescent labels is an established tool for structural, biochemical, and biophysical studies; however, it remains underused for small peptides. In this work, an amino acid bearing a 3-hydroxychromone fluorophore, 2-amino-3-(2-(furan-2-yl)-3-hydroxy-4-oxo-4H-chromen-6-yl)propanoic acid (FHC), was incorporated in a known hexameric antimicrobial peptide, cyclo[RRRWFW] (cWFW), in place of aromatic residues. Circular dichroism spectropolarimetry and antibacterial activity measurements demonstrated that the FHC residue perturbs the peptide structure depending on labeling position but does not modify the activity of cWFW significantly. FHC thus can be considered an adequate label for studies of the parent peptide. Several analytical and imaging techniques were used to establish the activity of the obtained labeled cWFW analogues toward animal cells and to study the behavior of the peptides in a multicellular organism. The 3-hydroxychromone fluorophore can undergo excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT), resulting in double-band emission from its two tautomeric forms. This feature allowed us to get insights into conformational equilibria of the labeled peptides, localize the cWFW analogues in human cells (HeLa and HEK293) and zebrafish embryos, and assess the polarity of the local environment around the label by confocal fluorescence microscopy. We found that the labeled peptides efficiently penetrated cancerous cells and localized mainly in lipid-containing and/or other nonpolar subcellular compartments. In the zebrafish embryo, the peptides remained in the bloodstream upon injection into the cardinal vein, presumably adhering to lipoproteins and/or microvesicles. They did not diffuse into any tissue to a significant extent during the first 3 h after administration. This study demonstrated the utility of fluorescent labeling by double-emission labels to evaluate biologically active peptides as potential drug candidates in vivo.

Diarylethene-Based Photoswitchable Inhibitors of Serine Proteases.

A bicyclic peptide scaffold was chemically adapted to generate diarylethene-based photoswitchable inhibitors of serine protease Bos taurus trypsin 1 (T1). Starting from a prototype molecule-sunflower trypsin inhibitor-1 (SFTI-1)-we obtained light-controllable inhibitors of T1 with Ki in the low nanomolar range, whose activity could be modulated over 20-fold by irradiation. The inhibitory potency as well as resistance to proteolytic degradation were systematically studied on a series of 17 SFTI-1 analogues. The hydrogen bond network that stabilizes the structure of inhibitors and possibly the enzyme-inhibitor binding dynamics were affected by isomerization of the photoswitch. The feasibility of manipulating enzyme activity in time and space was demonstrated by controlled digestion of gelatin-based hydrogel and an antimicrobial peptide BP100-RW. Finally, our design principles of diarylethene photoswitches are shown to apply also for the development of other serine protease inhibitors.

TAT-RasGAP317-326 kills cells by targeting inner-leaflet-enriched phospholipids.

TAT-RasGAP317-326 is a cell-penetrating peptide-based construct with anticancer and antimicrobial activities. This peptide kills a subset of cancer cells in a manner that does not involve known programmed cell death pathways. Here we have elucidated the mode of action allowing TAT-RasGAP317-326 to kill cells. This peptide binds and disrupts artificial membranes containing lipids typically enriched in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane, such as phosphatidylinositol-bisphosphate (PIP2) and phosphatidylserine (PS). Decreasing the amounts of PIP2 in cells renders them more resistant to TAT-RasGAP317-326, while reducing the ability of cells to repair their plasma membrane makes them more sensitive to the peptide. The W317A TAT-RasGAP317-326 point mutant, known to have impaired killing activities, has reduced abilities to bind and permeabilize PIP2- and PS-containing membranes and to translocate through biomembranes, presumably because of a higher propensity to adopt an α-helical state. This work shows that TAT-RasGAP317-326 kills cells via a form of necrosis that relies on the physical disruption of the plasma membrane once the peptide targets specific phospholipids found on the cytosolic side of the plasma membrane.

Structural and functional characterization of the pore-forming domain of pinholin S2168.

Pinholin S2168 triggers the lytic cycle of bacteriophage φ21 in infected Escherichia coli Activated transmembrane dimers oligomerize into small holes and uncouple the proton gradient. Transmembrane domain 1 (TMD1) regulates this activity, while TMD2 is postulated to form the actual "pinholes." Focusing on the TMD2 fragment, we used synchrotron radiation-based circular dichroism to confirm its α-helical conformation and transmembrane alignment. Solid-state 15N-NMR in oriented DMPC bilayers yielded a helix tilt angle of τ = 14°, a high order parameter (Smol = 0.9), and revealed the azimuthal angle. The resulting rotational orientation places an extended glycine zipper motif (G40xxxS44xxxG48) together with a patch of H-bonding residues (T51, T54, N55) sideways along TMD2, available for helix-helix interactions. Using fluorescence vesicle leakage assays, we demonstrate that TMD2 forms stable holes with an estimated diameter of 2 nm, as long as the glycine zipper motif remains intact. Based on our experimental data, we suggest structural models for the oligomeric pinhole (right-handed heptameric TMD2 bundle), for the active dimer (right-handed Gly-zipped TMD2/TMD2 dimer), and for the full-length pinholin protein before being triggered (Gly-zipped TMD2/TMD1-TMD1/TMD2 dimer in a line).

Diarylethene moiety as an enthalpy-entropy switch: photoisomerizable stapled peptides for modulating p53/MDM2 interaction.

Analogs of the known inhibitor (peptide pDI) of the p53/MDM2 protein-protein interaction are reported, which are stapled by linkers bearing a photoisomerizable diarylethene moiety. The corresponding photoisomers possess significantly different affinities to the p53-interacting domain of the human MDM2. Apparent dissociation constants are in the picomolar-to-low nanomolar range for those isomers with diarylethene in the "open" configuration, but up to eight times larger for the corresponding "closed" isomers. Spectroscopic, structural, and computational studies showed that the stapling linkers of the peptides contribute to their binding. Calorimetry revealed that the binding of the "closed" isomers is mostly enthalpy-driven, whereas the "open" photoforms bind to the protein stronger due to their increased binding entropy. The results suggest that conformational dynamics of the protein-peptide complexes may explain the differences in the thermodynamic profiles of the binding.

Enhancing the activity of membrane remodeling epsin-peptide by trimerization.

Modulating the structural dynamics of biomembranes by inducing bilayer curvature and lipid packing defects has been highlighted as a practical tool to modify membrane-dependent cellular processes. Previously, we have reported on an amphipathic helical peptide derived from the N-terminal segment (residues 1-18, EpN18) of epsin-1, which can promote membrane remodeling including lipid packing defects in cell membranes. However, a high concentration is required to exhibit a pronounced effect. In this study, we demonstrate a significant increase in the membrane-remodeling effect of EpN18 by constructing a branched EpN18 homotrimer. Both monomer and trimer could enhance cell internalization of octaarginine (R8), a cell-penetrating peptide. The EpN18 trimer, however, promoted the uptake of R8 at an 80-fold lower concentration than the monomer. Analysis of the generalized polarization of a polarity-sensitive dye (di-4-ANEPPDHQ) revealed a higher efficacy of trimeric EpN18 in loosening the lipid packing in the cell membrane. Circular dichroism measurements in the presence of lipid vesicles showed that the EpN18 trimer has a higher α-helix content compared with the monomer. The stronger ability of the EpN18 trimer to impede negative bilayer curvature is also corroborated by solid-state 31P NMR spectroscopy. Hence, trimerizing peptides can be considered a promising approach for an exponential enhancement of their membrane-remodeling performance.

Light-controllable dithienylethene-modified cyclic peptides: photoswitching the in vivo toxicity in zebrafish embryos.

This study evaluates the embryotoxicity of dithienylethene-modified peptides upon photoswitching, using 19 analogues based on the ß-hairpin scaffold of the natural membranolytic peptide gramicidin S. We established an in vivo assay in two variations (with ex vivo and in situ photoisomerization), using larvae of the model organism Danio rerio, and determined the toxicities of the peptides in terms of 50% lethal doses (LD50). This study allowed us to: (i) demonstrate the feasibility of evaluating peptide toxicity with D. rerio larvae at 3-4 days post fertilization, (ii) determine the phototherapeutic safety windows for all peptides, (iii) demonstrate photoswitching of the whole-body toxicity for the dithienylethene-modified peptides in vivo, (iv) re-analyze previous structure-toxicity relationship data, and (v) select promising candidates for potential clinical development.

Nanomolar Synthesis in Droplet Microarrays with UV-Triggered On-Chip Cell Screening.

Miniaturization and parallelization of combinatorial organic synthesis is important to accelerate the process of drug discovery while reducing the consumption of reagents and solvents. This work presents a miniaturized platform for on-chip solid-phase combinatorial library synthesis with UV-triggered on-chip cell screening. The platform is based on a nanoporous polymer coating on a glass slide, which is modified via photolithography to yield arrays of hydrophilic (HL) spots surrounded by superhydrophobic (SH) surface. The combination of HL spots and SH background enables confinement of nanoliter droplets, functioning as miniaturized reactors for the solid-phase synthesis. The polymer serves as support for nanomolar solid-phase synthesis, while a photocleavable linker enables the release of the synthesized compounds into the droplets containing live cells. A 588 compound library of bisamides is synthesized via a four-component Ugi reaction on the chip and products are detected via stamping of the droplet array onto a conductive substrate and subsequent matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry. The light-induced cleavage shows high flexibility in screening conditions by spatial, temporal, and quantitative control.

Supreme activity of gramicidin S against resistant, persistent and biofilm cells of staphylococci and enterococci.

Three promising antibacterial peptides were studied with regard to their ability to inhibit the growth and kill the cells of clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium. The multifunctional gramicidin S (GS) was the most potent, compared to the membranotropic temporin L (TL), being more effective than the innate-defence regulator IDR-1018 (IDR). These activities, compared across 16 strains as minimal bactericidal and minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC), are independent of bacterial resistance pattern, phenotype variations and/or biofilm-forming potency. For S. aureus strains, complete killing is accomplished by all peptides at 5 × MIC. For E. faecalis strains, only GS exhibits a rapid bactericidal effect at 5 × MIC, while TL and IDR require higher concentrations. The biofilm-preventing activities of all peptides against the six strains with the largest biofilm biomass were compared. GS demonstrates the lowest minimal biofilm inhibiting concentrations, whereas TL and IDR are consistently less effective. In mature biofilms, only GS completely kills the cells of all studied strains. We compare the physicochemical properties, membranolytic activities, model pharmacokinetics and eukaryotic toxicities of the peptides and explain the bactericidal, antipersister and antibiofilm activities of GS by its elevated stability, pronounced cell-penetration ability and effective utilization of multiple modes of antibacterial action.