Maintenance of heritage culture, internalized racism, and family conflict on self-esteem among Asian Americans.

Lui (2015) suggested that intergenerational family conflict can arise between immigrant children and parents due to differences in mainstream U.S. culture and traditional heritage culture. Thus, the present study examined whether Asian American college students' internalized racism and perceived mothers' and fathers' maintenance of heritage culture were related to intergenerational family conflict and, in turn, self-esteem. Data were collected from 465 self-identifying Asian American college students around the United States (Mage = 19.60, SD = 2.21). A path analysis revealed that when controlling for participant age, gender, and generational status, greater internalized racism and mothers' maintenance of heritage culture messages were linked to greater intergenerational family conflict with mothers and, in turn, lower self-esteem. In addition, internalized racism and greater perceived maintenance of heritage culture from fathers were positively related to intergenerational family conflict with fathers, but intergenerational family conflict with fathers was unrelated to self-esteem. Implications include teaching Asian American college students about the effects of internalized racism and developing interventions to mitigate mental health challenges and family conflicts among Asian Americans. Results highlight how larger macrosystems affect family dynamics and the well-being of Asian Americans and the need to improve the racial climate in the United States. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Skin tone ideologies, body shame, and sexual risk in Latinx young adults: The role of self-esteem.

Latinx young adults in the U.S. experience significant disparities related to body image and sexual health. These challenges partly stem from the intersections of racism, ethnocentrism, and colorism perpetuated through Eurocentric beauty standards and norms surrounding sexuality. Despite the salience of skin tone within the Latinx community, the impact of skin tone ideologies on body shame and sexual risk remains unexplored. Addressing this gap, the present study examined the influence of skin tone ideologies (i.e., colorist attraction and skin tone self-concept) on sexual risk and body shame among a sample of 539 Latinx young adults. The study also explored the potential moderating effect of self-esteem on colorist attraction and skin tone self-concept on body shame and sexual risk. Results revealed that both colorist attraction and skin-tone self-concept were positively associated with body shame. Colorist attraction was positively associated with sexual risk, whereas skin tone self-concept was not associated. Furthermore, self-esteem moderated the positive significant association between skin tone self-concept and body shame, such that the association was only significant among Latinx young adults who reported mean and high levels of self-esteem; self-esteem did not moderate any of the other study's associations. These findings inform the development of tailored mental and sexual health interventions to reduce health disparities among Latinx young adults, considering the influence of skin tone socialization.

Family rejection and LGBTQ+ Asian Americans' psychological distress and disordered eating: The role of conflicts in allegiances and family shame.

OBJECTIVES: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, and queer (LGBTQ+) Asian Americans experience unique psychological health concerns at the intersection of multiple forms of marginalization. White supremacist, cisheteronormative, and colonial ideals and their structural and interpersonal manifestations may encourage family rejection of LGBTQ+ identities within Asian American family units. Family shame, conflicts in allegiances, and internalized anti-LGBTQ+ stigma were hypothesized as mediators in the association between family rejection and psychological distress and disordered eating. METHOD: The present study examined family rejection and its impacts on psychological distress and disordered eating in a sample of LGBTQ+ Asian American adults (N = 155; Mage = 24.26; 30.3% gender diverse) using a cross-sectional survey design and path analysis. RESULTS: There was a significant serial mediation such that family rejection was positively associated with conflicts in allegiances, family shame, and psychological distress (B = .12, p = .01). The same serial mediation was nonsignificant for disordered eating (B = .04, p = .26). CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate the importance of considering conflicts in allegiances, family shame, and the interpersonal dynamics of LGBTQ+ Asian Americans in understanding experiences of psychological distress and disordered eating. Implications are drawn for further research, clinical work, and broader efforts addressing the larger sociocultural environment that encourages family rejection of LGBTQ+ identity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The relationship between mother and father racial-ethnic socialization profiles and family cohesion and sociopolitical values among Asian American adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: Although research on racial-ethnic socialization with Asian American families examines academic and psychological outcomes, less is known about whether messages from mothers and fathers are related to their adolescent's Asian American sociopolitical values and family cohesion. METHODS: Cross-sectional survey data were collected from 308 Asian American adolescents, ages 14-18, in the United States in 2021 (Mage = 16.83; standard deviation = 1.15). RESULTS: Using latent profile analysis, we found that there were three socialization profiles for mothers (integration socialization, moderate separation socialization, and high separation socialization) and two for fathers (integration socialization and high separation socialization). The integration socialization reported more maintenance of heritage culture and becoming American messages, with the lowest reports of awareness of discrimination and avoidance of outgroups. The high separation profile had the highest amount of maintenance of heritage culture messages, awareness of discrimination, and avoidance of outgroups but lowest amount of becoming American messages. Looking at profiles for youths' perceptions of mothers, the moderate separation profile had slightly lower scores on maintenance of heritage culture messages, moderate scores on avoidance of outgroups, and higher reports of becoming American and awareness of discrimination compared to the high separation profile. Adolescents with mothers in the integration profile had the greatest mother-child cohesion and highest level of sociopolitical values. With fathers, Asian American adolescents reported greater father-child cohesion in the integration profile, but there were no differences between socialization profiles and youth's Asian American sociopolitical values. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the importance of parental messages on both identity outcomes (i.e., sociopolitical values) and family processes (i.e., family cohesion).

Helping skills training: Outcomes and trainer effects.

We studied whether counseling self-efficacy increases after taking a helping skills course as well as whether trainer (instructor) effects are associated with postclass self-efficacy. We surveyed 551 undergraduate students and 27 trainers in helping skills courses across three semesters at one large mid-Atlantic U.S. public university. We found that students reported greater counseling self-efficacy after taking the course. In addition, trainers accounted for small but significant amount of the variance (7%) in changes in counseling self-efficacy. There was evidence that the instructors' authoritative teaching style but not their facilitative interpersonal skills were associated with increases in students' counseling self-efficacy. Implications for helping skills training are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Profiles of Racial Socialization Messages from Mothers and Fathers and The Colorblind and Anti-Black Attitudes of Asian American Adolescents.

Racial equality requires coalitions and solidarity across racial groups, but there continues to be racially colorblind and anti-Black attitudes within the Asian American community, a diverse community consisting of individuals with ancestral origins in East, Southeast, and South Asia. However, there is limited research on the factors that contribute to the development of these attitudes among Asian Americans. Parents could potentially play an important role in perpetuating or challenging the colorblind and anti-Black messages that pervade U.S. society. Thus, the current study investigates how 309 Asian American adolescents' (M age = 16.8; SD = 1.15; 50.5% female) perceptions of parents' racial socialization messages about race and racism relate to the youth's racial attitudes. Latent profiles of youth's perceptions of mothers' and fathers' racial socialization messages and their associations with colorblind racial attitudes and anti-Black attitudes were examined. For mothers, three socialization profiles were identified: Race Avoidant, Race Hesitant, and Race Embracing; for fathers, two socialization profiles were identified: Race Avoidant and Race Embracing. Adolescents with Race Embracing mothers reported less anti-Black attitudes compared to those who had Race Hesitant mothers. For fathers, there were no differences among the profiles and anti-Black attitudes. However, surprisingly, adolescents with Race Embracing fathers were more likely to have colorblind racial attitudes compared to those with Race Avoidant fathers. The findings highlight the importance of racial socialization in the development of Asian American adolescents' racial attitudes to continue fighting for interracial solidarity.

Mothers' preparation for bias and responses to children's distress predict positive adjustment among Black children: an attachment perspective.

Traditional conceptualizations of maternal sensitivity overlook the adaptive function of some parenting behaviors. This study examined mothers' preparation for bias, suppression responses, and supportive responses to their Black children's distress as indicators of secure base provision at age five and predictors of children's age six emotional and behavioral self-regulation. Participants included 91 Black children (52% female) and their mothers. Results indicated a significant 3-way interaction such that mothers' preparation for bias predicted children's greater self-regulation when mothers reported high support and moderate suppression in response to children's distress, b = .40, p < .001. Preparation for bias predicted children's lower self-regulation when mothers were highly supportive yet low on suppression responses to distress, b = -.31, p < .01. Attachment researchers should consider evaluating caregiving behaviors traditionally deemed insensitive (e.g. parental suppression) through the lens of serving an adaptive function within a complex system of protective practices among Black families.

Working alliance, therapist expressive skills, and client outcome in psychodynamic therapy.

Bordin's (1979) theory suggests that therapist techniques that call for client introspection and self-observation will be more effective when the working alliance (WA) is stronger. Psychodynamic therapists use expressive techniques to elicit this introspection and self-observation. We examined whether therapists' use of expressive skills (e.g., encouraging expression of thoughts and feelings; helping clients understand the reasons behind their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors) when the WA is high, versus low, was related to client outcome in open-ended, psychodynamic treatment. Ten therapists rated the WA with their 47 clients, who rated their perceptions of helping skills, after 2,284 counseling sessions. Clients also completed the Outcome Rating Scale (ORS) in reference to the week following each session. We examined time-ordered relationships by creating lagged variables for WA (T-2) and therapist expressive skills (TES; T-1) and used these scores to predict ORS ratings (T) in a three-level Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) analysis (sessions nested within clients, nested within therapists). Lagged WA (T-2) and expressive skills (T-1) were decomposed into between-therapist, within-therapist, and within-clients components. We found a 3-way interaction for within-therapist working alliance, within-client WA at T-2, and expressive skills at T-1 predicting ORS at T. When clients who had a weaker WA with their therapist than the therapists' other clients, had a session with a stronger WA than the client's usual WA, then more expressive skills in the next session was related to better psychological well-being in the subsequent session. Implications and future directions are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Helping skills courses: The effects of student diversity and numeric marginalization on counseling self-efficacy, counseling self-stigma, and mental health.

We examined the effects of racial/ethnic diversity and numeric marginalization on learning outcomes (changes in counseling self-efficacy, self-stigma for seeking counseling, and mental health) with 402 students in 30 sections of helping skills classes. Students self-identified as African American, Asian, Hispanic/Latinx, Other, or White. We operationalized class diversity with the diversity index developed by Chang (1999) and numeric marginalization as the percentage of students in the class that shared a target student's identity. Using two-level Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM; students nested within classes), we predicted counseling self-efficacy, counseling self-stigma, and mental health from student identity (Level 1), and the cross-level interaction between diversity and numeric marginalization (Level 2). Results suggested that classroom diversity had no effects on counseling self-efficacy but was associated with greater self-stigma. However, more classroom diversity was linked with better mental health for Latinx students. With African American students, numeric marginalization was associated with more counseling self-stigma. Surprisingly, for Asian students, numeric marginalization (i.e., a greater percentage of Asian students in a classroom) was linked with worse mental health. Finally, diversity had no effects on outcomes for White students. Findings demonstrate the importance of racial/ethnic composition in helping skills courses. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Second-generation Asian American women's gendered racial socialization.

Utilizing an intersectional framework (Crenshaw, 1989) and socioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), we investigated the gendered racialized messages Asian American women receive growing up, otherwise known as gendered racial socialization, from their family, peers, and mass media. Consensual Qualitative Research was used to analyze interview data from 12 second-generation Asian American women. The results demonstrated that (a) family socialization messages included gendered racial discrimination, body image and physical appearance, marital/dating attitudes, role responsibilities and expectations, and academic/work expectations, (b) peer socialization included oppressive messages (e.g., physical objectification, denial of identity, lack of presence) and affirming messages (e.g., positive self-concept messages), and (c) mass media socialization included oppressive messages (e.g., lack of representation, stereotypical depictions), and affirming messages (e.g., messages about empowerment). These messages impacted Asian American women's views on their body image and physical appearance, self-esteem, career/work, mental health, and critical consciousness. Implications and findings of the need to dismantle interlocking oppressive forces are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Feeling offended by clients: The experiences of doctoral student therapists.

Ten doctoral student therapists (8 White, 5 female) in 1 counseling psychology doctoral program located in the Mid-Atlantic United States were interviewed for approximately 1 hour each about their experiences of feeling offended by a client during an individual psychotherapy session. Interview data were analyzed with consensual qualitative research (CQR). Trainee therapists typically felt offended related to their sociocultural identities (e.g., being a woman, LGBTQ+, racial-ethnic minority), felt frozen after the events and uncertain about how to respond, wished they had handled the events differently, and struggled when clients expressed opinions or beliefs that ran counter to their own values. Trainees had difficulty maintaining an empathic, nonjudgmental therapeutic stance where they could both value the client and maintain their own sense of integrity and beliefs about social justice and multiculturalism. Implications for training, practice, and research are provided. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Profiles of ethnic-racial socialization from family, school, neighborhood, and the Internet: Relations to adolescent outcomes.

Given that ecological models of development highlight the interacting influences of multiple environments, further research is needed that explores ethnic-racial socialization from multiple contexts. The current study explores how families, schools, neighborhoods, and the Internet jointly impact academic outcomes, critical consciousness, and psychological well-being in adolescents, both through socialization messages and experiences with racial discrimination. The research questions were: (a) What profiles of multiple contexts of socialization exist? and (b) How are the different profiles associated with academic outcomes, critical consciousness, and psychological well-being? The sample consisted of 1,084 U.S. adolescents aged 13-17 (M = 14.99, SD = 1.37; 49% girls) from four ethnic-racial groups: 25.6% Asian American, 26.3% Black/African American, 25.3% Latinx, and 22.9% White. The participants completed online surveys of socialization and discrimination from four contexts and three types of outcomes: academic outcomes, critical consciousness, and well-being. A latent profile analysis revealed three profiles: Average, High Discrimination, and Positive School. The Positive School class had the most positive academic outcomes and well-being. The High Discrimination class reported the highest critical consciousness. Their academic outcomes and well-being were similar to the Average group. The findings support complexity in perceptions of socialization from different contexts and the associations of socialization with youth outcomes.

Practice recommendations for addressing racism: A content analysis of the counseling psychology literature.

Although racism persists as a significant public health issue that adversely impacts the mental health of people of color (U.S. Department of Health and Human Service, 2001), there has been very little systematic guidance for mental health professionals to address racism through practice (S. Harrell, 2000). Therefore, we conducted a content analysis of the peer reviewed counseling psychology literature-the first of its kind-to provide a summary and critique of the extant practice recommendations and facilitate the development and enhancement of practice efforts aimed at addressing racism. We reviewed racism-related articles published in the Journal of Counseling Psychology, The Counseling Psychologist, and Counseling Psychology Quarterly and identified 73 relevant articles, of which 51 provided practice recommendations. Based on our review of this literature, we identified eight general categories of recommendations for addressing racism: psychoeducation, validation, self-awareness and critical consciousness, critical examination of privilege and racial attitudes, culturally responsive social support, developing positive identity, externalize/minimize self-blame, and outreach and advocacy. We found that most recommendations within each category were at the individual level with far fewer at the group and systemic level. A critique of recommendations is provided along with suggestions for developing and bolstering practice, research, and consultation efforts aimed at addressing racism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).