Comparative studies on the physicochemical profile and potential hypoglycemic activity of different tea extracts: Effect on sucrase-isomaltase activity and glucose transport in Caco-2 cells.

Tea is one of the most popular beverages in the world and is believed to be beneficial for health. The main components in tea change greatly depending on different processes, and thus, the effects of different teas on human health may differ. In this study, we compared the effect of green, oolong, black, and dark tea extracts on sucrase-isomaltase (SI) activity and glucose transport, which are two intervention options for postprandial blood glucose control, using Caco-2 cells as a model. Theaflavin-rich black tea extracts showed the highest inhibition of SI activity and retardation of the hydrolysis of sucrose, maltose, and isomaltose, with IC50 values of 8.34 µg/mL, 16.10 µg/mL, and 21.63 µg/mL, respectively. All four kinds of tea extracts caused a dose-dependent inhibition of glucose transport, which were closely related to the catechin content. Green tea extracts showed the highest inhibition of glucose transport and was more effective against sodium-dependent glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) than glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2) in the management of glucose transport. Black tea extracts also inhibited glucose transport despite low level of catechins. The reason could partly lie in the suppression of Na+/K+-ATPase, which reduced the energy needed for SGLT1 to actively transport glucose. Furthermore, the mRNA level of SI, SGLT1, GLUT2, and Na+/K+-ATPase in Caco-2 cells were significantly reduced after treatment with tea extracts for 2 h. These in vitro studies suggested that tea could be used as a functional food in the diet to modulate postprandial hyperglycaemia for diabetic patients.

Study on mechanism of low bioavailability of black tea theaflavins by using Caco-2 cell monolayer.

This study aimed to clarify the bioavailability mechanism of theaflavins by using the Caco-2 monolayer in vitro model. Prior to the transport of theaflavin (TF), theaflavin-3-gallate (TF3G), theaflavin-3'-gallate (TF3'G), and theaflavin-3, 3'-digallate (TFDG), we found the cytotoxicity of theaflavins was in the order of TF3'G > TFDG > TF3G > TF, suggesting the galloyl moiety enhances the cytotoxicity of theaflavins. Meantime, the galloyl moiety made theaflavins unstable, with the stability in the order of TF > TFDG > TF3G/TF3'G. Four theaflavins showed poor bioavailability with the Papp values ranging from 0.44 × 10-7 to 3.64 × 10-7 cm/s in the absorptive transport. All the theaflavins showed an efflux ratio of over 1.24. And it is further confirmed that P-glycoprotein (P-gp), multidrug resistance associated proteins (MRPs) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) were all shown to contribute to the efflux transport of four theaflavins, with P-gp playing the most important role, followed by MRPs and BCRP. Moreover, theaflavins increased the expression of P-gp, MRP1, MPR3, and BCRP while decreased the expression of MRP2 at the transcription and translation levels. Additionally, the gallated theaflavins were degraded into simple theaflavins and gallic acids when transported through Caco-2 monolayers. Overall, the structural instability, efflux transporters, and cell metabolism were all responsible for the low bioavailability of four theaflavins in Caco-2 monolayers.

Inhibition of the facilitative sugar transporters (GLUTs) by tea extracts and catechins.

Tea polyphenolics have been suggested to possess blood glucose lowering properties by inhibiting sugar transporters in the small intestine and improving insulin sensitivity. In this report, we studied the effects of teas and tea catechins on the small intestinal sugar transporters, SGLT1 and GLUTs (GLUT1, 2 and 5). Green tea extract (GT), oolong tea extract (OT), and black tea extract (BT) inhibited glucose uptake into the intestinal Caco-2 cells with GT being the most potent inhibitor (IC50 : 0.077 mg/mL), followed by OT (IC50 : 0.136 mg/mL) and BT (IC50 : 0.56 mg/mL). GT and OT inhibition of glucose uptake was partial non-competitive, with an inhibitor constant (Ki ) = 0.0317 and 0.0571 mg/mL, respectively, whereas BT was pure non-competitive, Ki  = 0.36 mg/mL. Oocytes injected to express small intestinal GLUTs were inhibited by teas, but SGLT1 was not. Furthermore, catechins present in teas were the predominant inhibitor of glucose uptake into Caco-2 cells, and gallated catechins the most potent: CG > ECG > EGCG ≥ GCG when compared to the non-gallated catechins (C, EC, GC, and EGC). In Caco-2 cells, individual tea catechins reduced the SGLT1 gene, but not protein expression levels. In contrast, GLUT2 gene and protein expression levels were reduced after 2 hours exposure to catechins but increased after 24 hours. These in vitro studies suggest teas containing catechins may be useful dietary supplements capable of blunting postprandial glycaemia in humans, including those with or at risk to Type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Chlorophyll Metabolism in Postharvest Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) Leaves: Variations in Color Values, Chlorophyll Derivatives, and Gene Expression Levels under Different Withering Treatments.

The freshness and color quality of postharvest tea leaves can be markedly prolonged and retained by proper preservation measures. Here, we investigated the dynamic changes of chlorophyll and its derivatives in postharvest tea leaves under different low-temperature treatments using natural withering as a control. Chlorophyll decomposition was found closely related with chlorophyllide, pheophorbide, and pheophytin. Low-temperature withering could slow chlorophyll degradation in postharvest tea leaves via significant inhibition on the enzyme activity and gene expression of Mg-dechelatase, chlorophyllase, and pheophorbide a oxygenase. At the initial stage of withering, a significant increase was observed in the chlorophyll content, expression of chlorophyll-synthesis-related enzymes (such as glutamyl-tRNA synthetase, etc.), and chlorophyll synthase activity in newly picked tea leaves. Moreover, an obvious decrease was found in the content of l-glutamate as the foremost precursor substance of chlorophyll synthesis. Hence, our findings revealed that the chlorophyll synthesis reaction was induced by the light-dehydration-stress in the initial withering of tea leaves. This study provides a theoretical basis for exploring preservation technology in actual green tea production.

Comparison of the Effects of Green and Black Tea Extracts on Na+ /K+ -ATPase Activity in Intestine of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetic Mice.

SCOPE: Na+ /K+ -ATPase is an important membrane-bound enzyme and high levels of Na+ /K+ -ATPase activity in intestine result in increased monosaccharide absorption and aggravated undesirable postprandial hyperglycemia in diabetic. The aim is to characterize the effects of green and black tea extracts on the intestinal Na+ /K+ -ATPase. METHODS AND RESULTS: The STZ-induced type 1 diabetic mice model and high-fat diet combined with low-dose STZ-induced type 2 diabetic mice model are used in this study and the data indicate that both green and black tea extracts show significant hypoglycemic effect. The Na+ /K+ -ATPase activities in intestine associated with glucose absorption are increased in type 1 diabetic mice, while those are even normal in type 2 diabetic mice. Green and black tea extracts can attenuate type 1 diabetes-induced intestinal Na+ /K+ -ATPase disturbance to control postprandial hyperglycemia. Black tea is more effective than green tea in reducing of Na+ /K+ -ATPase activity and protein expression. Theaflavins are the major functional components of black tea and theaflavine-3,3'-digallate presents the strongest inhibitory effect exhibiting anticompetition with ATP and mixed inhibition with Na+ and K+ . CONCLUSION: Tea, especially black tea, can be considered a potential therapeutic agent against type 1 diabetes-induced intestinal Na+ /K+ -ATPase disturbance to control postprandial hyperglycemia.

Effect of Stereochemical Configuration on the Transport and Metabolism of Catechins from Green Tea across Caco-2 Monolayers.

The transcellular transport and metabolism of eight green tea catechins (GTCs) were studied in Caco-2 monolayers, with the aim of investigating the effect of cis⁻trans isomerism on the membrane permeability and biotransformation of GTCs. The results showed that the catechin stereochemistry significantly affects the efflux transport rather than the absorption transport in the Caco-2 monolayers. The trans catechins showed a better transcellular permeability than their corresponding cis (epi) catechins in the efflux transport, as the efflux amount of trans catechins were all significantly higher than that of the cis (epi) catechins at each concentration and each time point tested. Moreover, the relative contents of the (+)-catechin (C)-O-sulfate, (+)-gallocatechin (GC)-O-sulfate, (-)-catechin gallate (CG)-O-sulfate, and (-)-gallocatechin gallate (GCG)-O-sulfate in the efflux transport were 2.67, 16.08, 50.48, and 31.54 times higher than that of the (-)-epicatechin (EC)-O-sulfate, (-)-epigallocatechin (EGC)-O-sulfate, (-)-epicatechin gallate (ECG)-O-sulfate, and (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)-O-sulfate, respectively. It indicated that more metabolites were observed after the transcellular efflux of trans catechins. Furthermore, after two hours of incubation, the GTCs could significantly increase the expression of multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2) and breast cancer-resistance protein (BCRP), and decrease the expression of P-glycoprotein in the Caco-2 cells. The regulation of GTCs on P-glycoprotein, MRP2, and BCRP could also be significantly influenced by the chemical and dimensional structure. In a conclusion, catechin stereochemistry significantly affects the transport and metabolism of GTCs when refluxed in the Caco-2 monolayers.

Effect of steeping temperature on antioxidant and inhibitory activities of green tea extracts against α-amylase, α-glucosidase and intestinal glucose uptake.

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of steeping temperature on the biological activities of green tea, including the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging capacity, α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitory activities, and glucose uptake inhibitory activity in Caco-2 cells. Results showed that, with increasing extraction temperature, the polyphenol content increased, which contributed to enhance antioxidant activity and inhibitory effects on α-glucosidase and α-amylase. Green tea steeped at 100°C showed the highest DPPH radical-scavenging activity and inhibitory effects on α-glucosidase and α-amylase activities with EC50 or IC50 values of 6.15µg/mL, 0.09mg/mL, and 6.31mg/mL, respectively. However, the inhibitory potential on glucose uptake did not show an upward trend with increasing extraction temperature. Green tea steeped at 60°C had significantly stronger glucose uptake inhibitory activity (p<0.05). The integrated data suggested that steeping temperature should be considered when evaluating the biological activities of green tea.

Impact of light irradiation on black tea quality during withering.

Black tea manufacture usually involves the processes of withering, cutting, fermentation and drying. The aim of present study was to evaluate the effect of the relationship between the quality and withering with different light sources (ultraviolet, yellow, blue, purple, orange, red, cyan, green and white) an quality attribute of tea. The results indicated that the yellow, orange and red light withering significantly improved the aroma and taste, imparting the tea a sweet flavor and a fresh and mellow taste. Tea treated with yellow light was scored highest the sensory scores and showed the highest content in catechins, theaflavins, amino acids and aroma components, followed by the orange and red light treatments. The black tea withered with ultraviolet light showed a strong astringency, probably resulting from low contents of theaflavins, amino acids and soluble sugar. The green light irradiation remarkably damaged the aroma and taste of the tea, leading to a strong greenish flavor and an astringent taste, probably owing to the lowest contents of chemical compositions. No significant cumulative effect was found in the hybrid light withering treatments. Therefore, monochromatic yellow, orange and red lights were suggested for withering the black tea to improve its overall quality.