Transcriptomic and microbiome analyses of copepod Apocyclops royi in response to an AHPND-causing strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus.

Copepods are small crustaceans that live in microorganism-rich aquatic environments and provide a key supply of live food for fish and shellfish larviculture. To better understand the host-pathogen interaction between the copepod and Vibrio parahaemolyticus causing acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (VPAHPND), the comparative transcriptome and microbiome analyses were conducted in copepod Apocyclops royi-TH following VPAHPND infection. Transcriptome analysis identified a total of 836 differentially expressed genes, with 275 upregulated and 561 downregulated genes. Subsequent analysis showed that a total of 37 differentially expressed genes were associated with the innate immune system, including 16 upregulated genes related to Toll-like receptor signaling pathway, antimicrobial peptides, and stress response genes, and 21 downregulated genes associated with immunological modulators, signaling molecules, and apoptosis-related proteins. Analysis of the copepod microbiome following VPAHPND infection showed that the microbes changed significantly after bacterial infection, with a reduced alpha diversity accompanied by the increased level of Proteobacteria and decreased levels of Bdellovibrionota, Bacteroidota, and Verrucomicrobiota. The population of Vibrio genera were increased significantly, while several other genera, including Denitromonas, Nitrosomonas, Blastopirellula, Fusibacter, Alteromonas, KI89A_clade, and Ruegeria, were decreased significantly after infection. These findings suggest that VPAHPND infection has a significant impact on the immune defense and the composition of the copepod microbiota.

Adjuvant Effects of a CC Chemokine for Enhancing the Efficacy of an Inactivated Streptococcus agalactiae Vaccine in Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus).

In this study, the ability of a CC chemokine (On-CC1) adjuvant to enhance the efficacy of a formalin-killed Streptococcus agalactiae vaccine (WC) in inducing immune responses against S. agalactiae in Nile tilapia was investigated through immune-related gene expression analysis, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), transcriptome sequencing, and challenge tests. Significantly higher S. agalactiae-specific IgM levels were detected in fish in the WC+CC group than in the WC alone or control groups at 8 days postvaccination (dpv). The WC vaccine group exhibited increased specific IgM levels at 15 dpv, comparable to those of the WC+CC group, with sustained higher levels observed in the latter group at 29 dpv and after challenge with S. agalactiae for 14 days. Immune-related gene expression analysis revealed upregulation of all target genes in the control group compared to those in the vaccinated groups, with notable differences between the WC and WC+CC groups at various time intervals. Additionally, transcriptome analysis revealed differential gene expression profiles between the vaccinated (24 and 96 hpv) and control groups, with notable upregulation of immune-related genes in the vaccinated fish. Differential gene expression (DGE) analysis revealed significant upregulation of immunoglobulin and other immune-related genes in the control group compared to those in the vaccinated groups (24 and 96 hpv), with distinct patterns observed between the WC and WC+CC vaccine groups. Finally, challenge with a virulent strain of S. agalactiae resulted in significantly higher survival rates for fish in the WC and WC+CC groups compared to fish in the control group, with a notable increase in survival observed in fish in the WC+CC group.

Antibacterial activity and immunomodulatory role of a proline-rich antimicrobial peptide SpPR-AMP1 against Vibrio campbellii infection in shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei.

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) constitute one of the most promising sources of natural molecules used for the design of effective antimicrobial agents alternative to antibiotics. Previously, we have showed that a crab proline-rich AMP designated as SpPR-AMP1 is a potent AMP that exhibited antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Here, we demonstrated the importance of SpPR-AMP1 peptide in treating a virulent acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) Vibrio campbellii VH-639 isolate and eliciting the innate immune response to counter the AHPND infection in shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. SpPR-AMP1 exhibited a strong antimicrobial activity against V. campbellii VH-639 at MIC value of 0.195-0.39 µM. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed the membrane disruption potential of SpPR-AMP1 against the V. campbellii VH-639 cells. The in vivo effect of SpPR-AMP1 in shrimp L.vannamei was investigated and the results showed that SpPR-AMP1 was capable of modulating the innate immune response by stimulating the expression levels of AMP transcripts in shrimp hemocytes. Moreover, treatments with SpPR-AMP1 could promote the resistance of shrimp against V. campbellii VH-639 infection as demonstrated by a significant increase in shrimp survival rate and decrease in both the bacterial load and the expression levels of bacterial PirA and PirB toxin gene transcripts in the infected shrimp. These results suggest the potential of SpPR-AMP1 peptide with the combined antimicrobial and immunoenhancing capabilities as promising antimicrobial agent to treat V. campbellii VH-639 causing AHPND infection in shrimp aquaculture.

RNA-seq transcriptome analysis and identification of the theromacin antimicrobial peptide of the copepod Apocyclops royi.

Copepods, including Apocyclops royi, are small aquatic crustaceans and one of the important foods for fish and shellfish larvae. However, studies of the host-pathogen interactions and understanding of infectious disease in copepods are still very limited, yet they are likely to be a significant factor in the sustainable development of copepod aquaculture. In the present study, we performed de novo RNA sequence analysis of A. royi-TH (a Thai isolate of A. royi), which yielded 4.80 Gb bases of clean data and a total of 29,786 unigenes. Annotation was then performed by comparison against seven functional databases, yielding 17,617 (NR: 59.15%), 2,969 (NT: 9.97%), 15,023 (SwissProt: 50.44%), 14,543 (KOG: 48.82%), 15,077 (KEGG: 50.62%), 6,763(GO: 22.71%), and 15,841 (InterPro: 53.18%) unigenes. In comparison to the components of the shrimp Toll pathway, LGBP, Spätzle, Toll receptors, MyD88, Pelle, TRAF6, Dorsal, and Cactus homologs were successfully identified in A. royi-TH. Additionally, a novel antimicrobial peptide (Theromacin-like) was characterized in A. royi (ArTM-like). The ArTM-like ORF was 279 bp and predicted to encode for 92 amino acid residues, with a mature peptide of 75 amino acids and a molecular mass of 8.56 kDa. The genomic organization of the ArTM-like gene consisted of three exons and two introns. Expression analysis indicated that ArTM-like mRNA was abundantly expressed in copepodid and adult stages as an immune responsive gene after infection with the pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus-(AHPND)-causing strain. Altogether, the knowledge obtained in this study will provide a basis for future functional studies of the molecular mechanisms in copepod immunity that may eventually be applied for disease prevention in copepod aquaculture.

Stimulator of interferon gene (STING) and interferon regulatory factor (IRF) are crucial for shrimp antiviral defense against WSSV infection.

The cytosolic DNA-sensing immune response is essential for recognizing and establishing an effective host immune response to pathogens. However, the importance of the cytosolic signalling molecules responsible for facilitating an appropriate immune response following infection with a DNA virus in shrimps remains unknown. Here, we report the discovery of the Penaeus monodon stimulator of interferon gene (PmSTING) and interferon regulatory factor (PmIRF) genes and their important roles in the host defense against viral infection. High expression levels of PmSTING transcripts were detected in the midgut, hepatopancreas, and hindgut, with lower levels in foregut, while PmIRF was highly expressed in the hindgut, foregut, and hepatopancreas of P. monodon. The mRNA expression level of both PmSTING and PmIRF was up-regulated in the foregut in response to white spot syndrome virus (WSSV; dsDNA virus) infection. RNA-interference-mediated gene silencing of PmSTING and PmIRF rendered shrimps to be more susceptible to WSSV infection; suppression of PmIRF decreased the mRNA transcript level of PmSTING; and silencing of the cytosolic sensor PmDDX41 suppressed both PmSTING and PmIRF gene transcript levels. Thus, PmSTING and PmIRF are likely to be important for the antiviral innate response against the dsDNA WSSV pathogen and may mediate the antiviral immune defenses via PmDDX41/PmSTING/PmIRF signaling cascade in P. monodon.

Establishment of hematopoietic tissue primary cell cultures from the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii.

The giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii is one of the most important aquaculture species in Southeast Asia. In this study, in vitro culture of its hematopoietic tissue cells was achieved and characterized for use as a tool to study its pathogens that cause major farm losses. By transmission electron microscopy, the ultrastructure of the primary culture cells was similar to that of cells lining intact hematopoietic tissue lobes. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) (a marker for hematopoietic stem cell proliferation) was detected in some of the cultured cells by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing and flow cytometry. Using a specific staining method to detect phenoloxidase activity and using PCR to detect expression markers for semigranular and granular hemocytes (e.g., prophenoloxidase activating enzyme and prophenoloxidase) revealed that some of the primary cells were able to differentiate into mature hemocytes within 24 h. These results showed that some cells in the cultures were hematopoietic stem cells that could be used to study other interesting research topics (e.g. host pathogen interactions and development of an immortal hematopoietic stem cell line).

Penaeus monodon Interferon Regulatory Factor (PmIRF) Activates IFNs and Antimicrobial Peptide Expression via a STING-Dependent DNA Sensing Pathway.

Interferon regulatory factors (IRFs) are transcription factors found in both vertebrates and invertebrates that were recently identified and found to play an important role in antiviral immunity in black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon. In this study, we investigated the mechanism by which P. monodon IRF (PmIRF) regulates the immune-related genes downstream of the cytosolic DNA sensing pathway. Depletion of PmIRF by double-stranded RNA-mediated gene silencing significantly reduced the mRNA expression levels of the IFN-like factors PmVago1, PmVago4, and PmVago5 and antilipopolysaccharide factor 6 (ALFPm6) in shrimp. In human embryonic kidney (HEK293T) cells transfected with PmIRF or co-transfected with DEAD-box polypeptide (PmDDX41) and simulator of IFN genes (PmSTING) expression plasmids, the promoter activity of IFN-ß, nuclear factor (NF-κB), and ALFPm6 was synergistically enhanced following stimulation with the nucleic acid mimics deoxyadenylic-deoxythymidylic acid sodium salt [poly(dA:dT)] and high molecular weight (HMW) polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid [poly(I:C)]. Both nucleic acid mimics also significantly induced PmSTING, PmIRF, and ALFPm6 gene expression. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments showed that PmIRF interacted with PmSTING in cells stimulated with poly(dA:dT). PmSTING, PmIRF, and PmDDX41 were localized in the cytoplasm of unstimulated HEK293T cells and PmIRF and PmDDX41 were translocated to the nucleus upon stimulation with the nucleic acid mimics while PmSTING remained in the cytoplasm. These results indicate that PmIRF transduces the pathogen signal via the PmDDX41-PmSTING DNA sensing pathway to induce downstream production of interferon-like molecules and antimicrobial peptides.

Characterization and functional analysis of fibrinogen-related protein (FreP) in the black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon.

Ficolin is classified as an immune related protein containing collagen-like and fibrinogen-related domain (FreD). In invertebrates, the functions of fibrinogen-related proteins (FrePs) are of importance to innate immunity. In this study, a FreP in the black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon was identified and characterized. The PmFreP cDNA is 1,007 bp long with a 921 bp-open reading frame that encodes for 306 amino acids. The deduced PmFreP sequence consists of a signal peptide, an unknown region and the FreD. Phylogenetic analysis showed that PmFreP was clustered with fibrinogen-like proteins in crustaceans which was separated from vertebrate ficolin-like proteins. The deduced fibrinogen-like domain contains four conserved cysteine residues (Cys96, Cys127, Cys249, and Cys262) that are responsible for the formation of disulfide bridges. Gene expression analysis shows that Pmfrep is mainly expressed in the intestine and the expression is significantly upregulated after Vibrio harveyi and white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) challenge. Recombinant PmFreP (rPmFreP) were successfully expressed and purified, and forms a trimeric structure as judged by native-PAGE. Bacterial binding assay showed that the rPmFreD can bind and agglutinate Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria in the presence of calcium (Ca2+) ions. Moreover, the rPmFreP facilitates the clearance of V. harveyi in vivo. Overall, our results suggested that the PmFreP may serve as pattern recognition receptors implicated in shrimp innate immunity.

Immune Regulation, but Not Antibacterial Activity, Is a Crucial Function of Hepcidins in Resistance against Pathogenic Bacteria in Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Linn.).

In this study, the functions of a recombinant propeptide (rProOn-Hep1) and the synthetic FITC-labelled mature peptides sMatOn-Hep1 and sMatOn-Hep2 were analyzed. Moreover, sMatOn-Hep1 and sMatOn-Hep2 were mildly detected in the lymphocytes of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and strongly detected in head kidney macrophages. The in vitro binding and antibacterial activities of these peptides were slightly effective against several pathogenic bacteria. Immune regulation by sMatOn-Hep1 was also analyzed, and only sMatOn-Hep1 significantly enhanced the phagocytic index in vitro (p < 0.05). Interestingly, intraperitoneal injection of sMatOn-Hep1 (10 or 100 µg) significantly elevated the phagocytic activity, phagocytic index, and lysozyme activity and clearly decreased the iron ion levels in the livers of the treated fish (p < 0.05). Additionally, sMatOn-Hep1 enhanced the expression levels of CC and CXC chemokines, transferrin and both On-Hep genes in the liver, spleen and head kidney, for 1-96 h after injection, but did not properly protect the experimental fish from S. agalactiae infection after 7 days of treatment. However, the injection of S. agalactiae and On-Heps indicated that 100 µg of sMatOn-Hep1 was very effective, while 100 µg of rProOn-Hep1 and sMatOn-Hep2 demonstrated moderate protection. Therefore, On-Hep is a crucial iron-regulating molecule and a key immune regulator of disease resistance in Nile tilapia.

Transcriptome analysis identifies immune-related genes and antimicrobial peptides in Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens).

Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens) is one of the most widely cultivated ornamental fish in global trade. However, transcriptomic data, which can reveal valuable genetic data for disease control and prevention, are extremely limited for this species. In this study, whole-body transcriptome sequencing of juvenile betta fish generated 4.457 GB of clean data and a total of 71,775 unigenes using the Illumina HiSeq4000 platform. These unigenes were functionally classified using 7 functional databases, yielding 45,316 NR (63.14%), 47,287 NT (65.88%), 39,105 Swiss-Prot (54.48%), 16,492 COG (22.98%), 37,694 KEGG (52.52%), 4,506 GO (6.28%), and 35,374 Interpro (49.28%) annotated unigenes. Furthermore, we also detected 13,834 SSRs distributed on 10,636 unigenes and 49,589 predicted CDSs. Based on KEGG analysis, five innate immune pathways (997 unigenes) were reported, including the NOD-like receptor signaling pathway, complement and coagulation cascades, toll-like receptor signaling pathway, RIG-I-like receptor signaling pathway and cytosolic DNA-sensing pathway. Moreover, four antimicrobial peptide (AMP) families (hepcidin, piscidin, LEAP-2, and defensins) from the betta fish transcriptome were also identified. Additionally, cDNA and genomic DNA of two ß-defensins was successfully isolated from four betta fish species. RT-PCR analysis showed that BsBD1 transcripts were most abundant in the muscle and kidney and BsBD2 transcripts were most abundant in the gill. The genomic organization showed that the BD1 and BD2 genes consisted of three exons and two introns according to the GT-AG rule. Most importantly, this is the first report of the betta fish whole-body transcriptome obtained by high-throughput sequencing. Our transcriptomic data and the discovery of betta fish AMPs should promote a better understanding of molecular immunology for disease prevention for further ornamental fish aquaculture.

A Cytosolic Sensor, PmDDX41, Binds Double Stranded-DNA and Triggers the Activation of an Innate Antiviral Response in the Shrimp Penaeus monodon via the STING-Dependent Signaling Pathway.

Helicase DDX41 is a cytosolic sensor capable of detecting double-stranded DNA in mammals. However, the function of DDX41 remains poorly understood in invertebrates. In a previous study, we identified the first DDX41 sensor in the black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon (PmDDX41) and showed that it played a role in anti-viral response. In the present study, we demonstrated that PmDDX41 was localized in the cytoplasm of shrimp hemocytes. However, PmDDX41 was localized in both the cytoplasm and nucleus of hemocytes in the presence of white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) infection or when stimulated by the nucleic acid mimics, poly(dA:dT) and poly(I:C). Similar results were observed when PmDDX41 was transfected into human embryonic kidney 293T (HEK293T) cells. Immunoprecipitation further demonstrated that PmDDX41 bound to biotin-labeled poly(dA:dT) but not poly(I:C). The overexpression of shrimp PmDDX41 and mouse stimulator of interferon gene (MmSTING) in HEK293T cells synergistically promoted IFN-ß and NF-κB promoter activity via the DEADc domain. Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) also confirmed that there was an interaction between PmDDX41 and STING after stimulation with poly(dA:dT) but not poly(I:C). Our study is the first to demonstrate that PmDDX41 acts as a cytosolic DNA sensor that interacts with STING via its DEADc domain to trigger the IFN-ß and NF-κB signaling pathways, thus activating antiviral innate immune responses.

Penaeus monodon IKKs Participate in Regulation of Cytokine-Like System and Antiviral Responses of Innate Immune System.

The IKK-NF-κB signaling cascade is one of the crucial responsive mechanisms in inflammatory and immune responses. The key kinase proteins called inhibitor of kappa B kinases (IKKs) serve as the core elements involved in cascade activation. Here, the complete ORFs of IKK homologs, PmIKKß, PmIKKε1, and PmIKKε2, from the black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon were identified and characterized for their functions in shrimp antiviral responses. The PmIKK transcripts were widely expressed in various examined tissues and the PmIKKε protein was detected in all three types of shrimp hemocytes. Only the PmIKKε1 and PmIKKε2 were responsive to white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), yellow head virus (YHV) and a bacterium Vibrio harveyi infection, while the PmIKKß exhibited no significant response to pathogen infection. On the contrary, suppression of PmIKKß and PmIKKε by dsRNA-mediated RNA interference (RNAi) resulted in a rapid death of WSSV-infected shrimp and the significant reduction of an IFN-like PmVago4 transcript. Whereas, the mRNA levels of the antimicrobial peptides, ALFPm3 and CrustinPm5, and a transcription factor, PmDorsal were significantly increased, those of ALFPm6, CrustinPm1, CrustinPm7, PmVago1, PmRelish, and PmCactus were unaffected. Overexpression of PmIKKß and PmIKKε in HEK293T cells differentially activated the NF-κB and IFNß promoter activities, respectively. These results suggest that the PmIKKß and PmIKKε may act as common factors regulating the expression of immune-related genes from various signaling pathways. Interestingly, the PmIKKs may also contribute a possible role in shrimp cytokine-like system and cross-talking between signaling transductions in innate immune responses.

Two host gut-derived lactic acid bacteria activate the proPO system and increase resistance to an AHPND-causing strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei.

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are group of beneficial bacteria that have been proposed as relevant probiotics with immunomodulatory functions. In this study, we initially isolated and identified host-derived LAB from the gut of the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Analysis of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequence revealed two candidate LAB, the Lactobacillus plantarum strain SGLAB01 and the Lactococcus lactis strain SGLAB02, which exhibited 99% identity to the L. plantarum strain LB1-2 and the L. lactis strain R-53658, which were isolated from bee gut, respectively. The two LAB displayed antimicrobial activities against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including the virulent acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND)-causing strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus (VPAHPND). Viable colony count and SEM analysis showed that the two candidate LAB, administered via oral route as feed supplement, could reside and adhere in the shrimp gut. Double-stranded RNA-mediated gene silencing of LvproPO1 and LvproPO2 revealed a significant role of two LvproPOs in the proPO system as well as in the immune response against VPAHPND infection in L. vannamei shrimp. The effect of LAB supplementation on modulation of the shrimp proPO system was investigated in vivo, and the results showed that administration of the two candidate LAB significantly increased hemolymph PO activity, the relative mRNA expression of LvproPO1 and LvproPO2, and resistance to VPAHPND infection. These findings suggest that administration of L. plantarum and L. lactis could modulate the immune system and increase shrimp resistance to VPAHPND infection presumably via upregulation of the two LvproPO transcripts.

A novel white spot syndrome virus protein WSSV164 controls prophenoloxidases, PmproPOs in shrimp melanization cascade.

Melanization, mediated by the prophenoloxidase (proPO)-activating system, is an important innate immune response in invertebrates. The implication of the proPO system in antiviral response and the suppression of host proPO activation by the viral protein have previously been demonstrated in shrimp. However, the molecular mechanism of viral-host interactions in the proPO cascade remains largely unexplored. Here, we characterized the viral protein, namely, WSSV164, which was initially identified from the forward suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) cDNA library of the PmproPO1/2 co-silenced black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon that was challenged with white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). Using the yeast two-hybrid system, WSSV164 was found to interact with the PmproPO2 protein. The subsequent validation assay by co-immunoprecipitation revealed that WSSV164 directly bound to both PmproPO1 and PmproPO2. The gene silencing experiment was carried out to explore the role of WSSV164 in the control of the proPO pathway in shrimp, and the results showed that suppression of WSSV164 can restore PO activity in WSSV-infected shrimp hemolymph. The recombinant proteins of PmproPO1 and PmproPO2 were produced in Sf-9 cells and were shown to be successfully activated by exogenous trypsin and endogenous serine proteinases from shrimp hemocyte lysate supernatant (HLS), yielding PO activity in vitro. Moreover, the activated PO activity in shrimp HLS was dose-dependently reduced by the recombinant WSSV164 protein, suggesting that WSSV164 may interfere with the activation of the proPO system in shrimp. Taken together, these results suggest an alternative infection route of WSSV through the encoded viral protein WSSV164 that binds to the PmproPO1 and PmproPO2 proteins, interfering with the activation of the melanization cascade in shrimp.

Shrimp hemocyte homeostasis-associated protein (PmHHAP) interacts with WSSV134 to control apoptosis in white spot syndrome virus infection.

Hemocyte homeostasis-associated protein (PmHHAP) was first identified as a viral-responsive gene, due to a high upregulation in transcription following white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) infection. Functional studies using RNA interference have suggested that PmHHAP is involved in hemocyte homeostasis by controlling apoptosis during WSSV infection. In this study, the role of PmHHAP in host-viral interactions was further investigated. Yeast two-hybrid assay and co-immunoprecipitation revealed that PmHHAP binds to an anti-apoptosis protein, WSSV134. The viral protein WSSV134 is a late protein of WSSV, expressed 24 h post infection (hpi). Gene silencing of WSSV134 in WSSV-infected shrimp resulted in a reduction of the expression level of the viral replication marker genes VP28, wsv477, and ie-1, which suggests that WSSV134 is likely involved in viral propagation. However, co-silencing of PmHHAP and WSSV134 counteracted the effects on WSSV infection, which implies the importance of the host-pathogen interaction between PmHHAP and WSSV134 in WSSV infection. In addition, caspase 3/7 activity was noticeably induced in the PmHHAP and WSSV134 co-silenced shrimp upon WSSV infection. Moreover, PmHHAP and WSSV134 inhibited caspase-induced activation of PmCasp in vitro in a non-competitive manner. Taken together, these results suggest that PmHHAP and WSSV134 play a role in the host-pathogen interaction and work concordantly to control apoptosis in WSSV infection.

Shrimp humoral responses against pathogens: antimicrobial peptides and melanization.

Diseases have caused tremendous economic losses and become the major problem threatening the sustainable development of shrimp aquaculture. The knowledge of host defense mechanisms against invading pathogens is essential for the implementation of efficient strategies to prevent disease outbreaks. Like other invertebrates, shrimp rely on the innate immune system to defend themselves against a range of microbes by recognizing and destroying them through cellular and humoral immune responses. Detection of microbial pathogens triggers the signal transduction pathways including the NF-κB signaling, Toll and Imd pathways, resulting in the activation of genes involved in host defense responses. In this review, we update the discovery of components of the Toll and Imd pathways in shrimp and their participation in the regulation of shrimp antimicrobial peptide (AMP) synthesis. We also focus on a recent progress on the two most powerful and the best-studied shrimp humoral responses: AMPs and melanization. Shrimp AMPs are mainly cationic peptides with sequence diversity which endues them the broad range of activities against microorganisms. Melanization, regulated by the prophenoloxidase activating cascade, also plays a crucial role in killing and sequestration of invading pathogens. The progress and emerging research on mechanisms and functional characterization of components of these two indispensable humoral responses in shrimp immunity are summarized and discussed. Interestingly, the pattern recognition protein (PRP) crosstalk is evidenced between the proPO activating cascade and the AMP synthesis pathways in shrimp, which enables the innate immune system to build up efficient immune responses.

A cytosolic sensor, PmDDX41, mediates antiviral immune response in black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon.

DEAD (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp)-box polypeptide 41 (DDX41), a receptor belonging to the DExD family, has recently been identified as an intracellular DNA sensor in vertebrates. Here, we report on the identification and functional characterization of PmDDX41, the first cytosolic DNA sensor in shrimp. By searching a Penaeus monodon expressed sequence tag (EST) database (http://pmonodon.biotec.or.th), three cDNA fragments exhibiting similarity to DDX41 in various species were identified and assembled, resulting in a complete open reading frame of PmDDX41 that contains 1863-bp and encodes a putative protein of 620 amino acids. PmDDX41 shares 83% and 79% similarity to DDX41 homolog from the bee Apis florea and fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, respectively and contains three conserved domains in the protein: DEADc domain, HELICc domain, and zinc finger domain. The transcript of PmDDX41 was detected in all tested tissues and was up-regulated upon infection with a DNA virus, white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). However, PmDDX41 mRNA expression was not significantly changed and down-regulated in response to a bacterium, Vibrio harveyi, or an RNA virus, yellow head virus (YHV), respectively, compared with the control phosphate-buffered saline-injected shrimp. Furthermore, the suppression of PmDDX41 by dsRNA-mediated gene silencing resulted in more rapid death of WSSV-infected shrimp and a significant decrease in the mRNA expression levels of several immune-related genes (PmIKKß, PmIKKɛ, PmRelish, PmCactus, PmDorsal, PmPEN3, PmPEN5, and ALFPm6). These results suggest that PmDDX41 is involved in the antiviral response, probably via a DNA-sensing pathway that is triggered through the IκB kinase complex and leads to the activation of several immune-related genes.

Binding of PmClipSP2 to microbial cell wall components and activation of the proPO-activating system in the black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon.

Clip domain serine proteinases (ClipSPs) play an important role in the prophenoloxidase-activating (proPO) system. In the shrimp Penaeus monodon, the ClipSP PmClipSP2 has been previously shown to bind to microbial polysaccharides (LPS and ß-1,3-glucan) and likely activates the proPO system. To reveal the binding site of the PmClipSP2 protein, the N-terminal clip domain (Clip-PmClipSP) and C-terminal SP domain (SP-PmClipSP2) were separately cloned. The recombinant proteins were then assayed for their binding properties and involvement in proPO activation. According to the ELISA-based binding assay, rSP-PmClipSP2, but not rClip-PmClipSP, can bind immobilized LPS and ß-1,3-glucan as well as significantly activate PO activity. The binding site at the SP domain is proposed to have a pattern sequence (X-[PFY]-X-[AFILV]-[AFY]-[AITV]-X-[ILV]-X(5)-W-[IL]-X) that is located at the C-terminal region of the SP domain of PmClipSP2. Deletion of the pattern sequence abolished binding to LPS and ß-1,3-glucan. Conversely, a recombinant protein containing the pattern sequence (rPT-PmClipSP2-TRX) had the ability to bind to cell wall components, confirming that the pattern sequence at the C-terminus of PmClipSP2 is responsible for binding to microbes, subsequently leading to activation of the proPO cascade.

A Natural Vibrio parahaemolyticus ΔpirA Vp pirB Vp+ Mutant Kills Shrimp but Produces neither Pir Vp Toxins nor Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease Lesions.

Acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) of shrimp is caused by Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates (VPAHPND isolates) that harbor a pVA plasmid encoding toxins PirA Vp and PirB Vp These are released from VPAHPND isolates that colonize the shrimp stomach and produce pathognomonic AHPND lesions (massive sloughing of hepatopancreatic tubule epithelial cells). PCR results indicated that V. parahaemolyticus isolate XN87 lacked pirA Vp but carried pirB Vp Unexpectedly, Western blot analysis of proteins from the culture broth of XN87 revealed the absence of both toxins, and the lack of PirB Vp was further confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. However, shrimp immersion challenge with XN87 resulted in 47% mortality without AHPND lesions. Instead, lesions consisted of collapsed hepatopancreatic tubule epithelia. In contrast, control shrimp challenged with typical VPAHPND isolate 5HP gave 90% mortality, accompanied by AHPND lesions. Sequence analysis revealed that the pVA plasmid of XN87 contained a mutated pirA Vp gene interrupted by the out-of-frame insertion of a transposon gene fragment. The upstream region and the beginning of the original pirA Vp gene remained intact, but the insertion caused a 2-base reading frameshift in the remainder of the pirA Vp gene sequence and in the downstream pirB Vp gene sequence. Reverse transcription-PCR and sequencing of 5HP revealed a bicistronic pirAB Vp mRNA transcript that was not produced by XN87, explaining the absence of both toxins in its culture broth. However, the virulence of XN87 revealed that some V. parahaemolyticus isolates carrying mutant pVA plasmids that produce no Pir Vp toxins can cause mortality in shrimp in ponds experiencing an outbreak of early mortality syndrome (EMS) but may not have been previously recognized to be AHPND related because they did not cause pathognomonic AHPND lesions.IMPORTANCE Shrimp acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) is caused by Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates (VPAHPND isolates) that harbor the pVA1 plasmid encoding toxins PirA Vp and PirB Vp The toxins are produced in the shrimp stomach but cause death by massive sloughing of hepatopancreatic tubule epithelial cells (pathognomonic AHPND lesions). V. parahaemolyticus isolate XN87 harbors a mutant pVA plasmid that produces no Pir toxins and does not cause AHPND lesions but still causes ∼50% shrimp mortality. Such isolates may cause a portion of the mortality in ponds experiencing an outbreak of EMS that is not ascribed to VPAHPND Thus, they pose to shrimp farmers an additional threat that would be missed by current testing for VPAHPND Moribund shrimp from ponds experiencing an outbreak of EMS that exhibit collapsed hepatopancreatic tubule epithelial cells can serve as indicators for the possible presence of such isolates, which can then be confirmed by additional PCR tests for the presence of a pVA plasmid.

Characterization and antimicrobial evaluation of SpPR-AMP1, a proline-rich antimicrobial peptide from the mud crab Scylla paramamosain.

Antimicrobial peptide (AMP) is an important molecule in the innate immune system. Here, we report the cloning and functional studies of proline-rich AMPs (PR-AMPs) from the three species of mud crab: Scylla paramamosain, S. serrata, and the swimming crab Portunus pelagicus. The deduced peptides revealed that they contain the putative signal peptides and encode for mature peptides, which contain sequence architecture similar to a 6.5-kDa proline-rich AMP of the shore crab, Carcinus maenas which showed similarity with the bactenecin7. Tissue distribution analysis indicated that the SpPR-AMP1 was expressed in a wide range of adult tissues, with the highest expression levels in the crab hemocyte. Challenge experiments showed that the levels of SpPR-AMP1 mRNA expression were up-regulated in the hemocyte after peptidoglycan stimulation. To evaluate the biological properties of mature SpPR-AMP1, peptides were chemically synthesized and recombinantly expressed. SpPR-AMP1 showed strong antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive bacteria Micrococcus luteus and Gram-negative bacteria Vibrio harveyi. The results indicate that the SpPR-AMP1 plays a role in crab immunity.