Shared and unique 3D genomic features of substance use disorders across multiple cell types.

Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have revealed shared genetic components among alcohol, opioid, tobacco and cannabis use disorders. However, the extent of the underlying shared causal variants and effector genes, along with their cellular context, remain unclear. We leveraged our existing 3D genomic datasets comprising high-resolution promoter-focused Capture-C/Hi-C, ATAC-seq and RNA-seq across >50 diverse human cell types to focus on genomic regions that coincide with GWAS loci. Using stratified LD regression, we determined the proportion of genomewide SNP heritability attributable to the features assayed across our cell types by integrating recent GWAS summary statistics for the relevant traits: alcohol use disorder (AUD), tobacco use disorder (TUD), opioid use disorder (OUD) and cannabis use disorder (CanUD). Statistically significant enrichments (P<0.05) were observed in 14 specific cell types, with heritability reaching 9.2-fold for iPSC-derived cortical neurons and neural progenitors, confirming that they are crucial cell types for further functional exploration. Additionally, several pancreatic cell types, notably pancreatic beta cells, showed enrichment for TUD, with heritability enrichments up to 4.8-fold, suggesting genomic overlap with metabolic processes. Further investigation revealed significant positive genetic correlations between T2D with both TUD and CanUD (FDR<0.05) and a significant negative genetic correlation with AUD. Interestingly, after partitioning the heritability for each cell type's cis-regulatory elements, the correlation between T2D and TUD for pancreatic beta cells was greater (r=0.2) than the global genetic correlation value. Our study provides new genomic insights into substance use disorders and implicates cell types where functional follow-up studies could reveal causal variant-gene mechanisms underpinning these disorders.

Variant-to-function analysis of the childhood obesity chr12q13 locus implicates rs7132908 as a causal variant within the 3' UTR of FAIM2.

The ch12q13 locus is among the most significant childhood obesity loci identified in genome-wide association studies. This locus resides in a non-coding region within FAIM2; thus, the underlying causal variant(s) presumably influence disease susceptibility via cis-regulation. We implicated rs7132908 as a putative causal variant by leveraging our in-house 3D genomic data and public domain datasets. Using a luciferase reporter assay, we observed allele-specific cis-regulatory activity of the immediate region harboring rs7132908. We generated isogenic human embryonic stem cell lines homozygous for either rs7132908 allele to assess changes in gene expression and chromatin accessibility throughout a differentiation to hypothalamic neurons, a key cell type known to regulate feeding behavior. The rs7132908 obesity risk allele influenced expression of FAIM2 and other genes and decreased the proportion of neurons produced by differentiation. We have functionally validated rs7132908 as a causal obesity variant that temporally regulates nearby effector genes and influences neurodevelopment and survival.

22q11.2 Deletion-Associated Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability Potentiates Systemic Capillary Leak Syndrome Neurologic Features.

We present a case study of a young male with a history of 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22qDS), diagnosed with systemic capillary leak syndrome (SCLS) who presented with acute onset of diffuse anasarca and sub-comatose obtundation. We hypothesized that his co-presentation of neurological sequelae might be due to blood-brain barrier (BBB) susceptibility conferred by the 22q11.2 deletion, a phenotype that we have previously identified in 22qDS. Using pre- and post-intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) patient serum, we studied circulating biomarkers of inflammation and assessed the potential susceptibility of the 22qDS BBB. We employed in vitro cultures of differentiated BBB-like endothelial cells derived from a 22qDS patient and a healthy control. We found evidence of peripheral inflammation and increased serum lipopolysaccharide (LPS) alongside endothelial cells in circulation. We report that the patient's serum significantly impairs barrier function of the 22qDS BBB compared to control. Only two other cases of pediatric SCLS with neurologic symptoms have been reported, and genetic risk factors have been suggested in both instances. As the third case to be reported, our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that genetic susceptibility of the BBB conferred by genes such as claudin-5 deleted in the 22q11.2 region promoted neurologic involvement during SCLS in this patient.

Targeted blockade of aberrant sodium current in a stem cell-derived neuron model of SCN3A encephalopathy.

Missense variants in SCN3A encoding the voltage-gated sodium (Na+) channel α subunit Nav1.3 are associated with SCN3A-related neurodevelopmental disorder (SCN3A-NDD), a spectrum of disease that includes epilepsy and malformation of cortical development. How genetic variation in SCN3A leads to pathology remains unclear, as prior electrophysiological work on disease-associated variants has been performed exclusively in heterologous cell systems. To further investigate the mechanisms of SCN3A-NDD pathogenesis, we used CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing to modify a control human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) line to express the recurrent de novo missense variant SCN3A c.2624T>C (p.Ile875Thr). With the established Ngn2 rapid induction protocol, we generated glutamatergic forebrain-like neurons (iNeurons), which we showed to express SCN3A mRNA and Nav1.3-mediated Na+ currents. We performed detailed whole-cell patch clamp recordings to determine the effect of the SCN3A-p.Ile875Thr variant on endogenous Na+ currents in, and intrinsic excitability of, human neurons. Compared to control iNeurons, variant-expressing iNeurons exhibit markedly increased slowly-inactivating/persistent Na+ current, abnormal firing patterns with paroxysmal bursting and plateau-like potentials with action potential failure, and a hyperpolarized voltage threshold for action potential generation. We then validated these findings using a separate iPSC line generated from a patient harbouring the SCN3A-p.Ile875Thr variant compared to a corresponding CRISPR-corrected isogenic control line. Finally, we found that application of the Nav1.3-selective blocker ICA-121431 normalizes action potential threshold and aberrant firing patterns in SCN3A-p.Ile1875Thr iNeurons; in contrast, consistent with action as a Na+ channel blocker, ICA-121431 decreases excitability of control iNeurons. Our findings demonstrate that iNeurons can model the effects of genetic variation in SCN3A yet reveal a complex relationship between gain-of-function at the level of the ion channel versus impact on neuronal excitability. Given the transient expression of SCN3A in the developing human nervous system, selective blockade or suppression of Nav1.3-containing Na+ channels could represent a therapeutic approach towards SCN3A-NDD.

3D genomic features across >50 diverse cell types reveal insights into the genomic architecture of childhood obesity.

The prevalence of childhood obesity is increasing worldwide, along with the associated common comorbidities of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease in later life. Motivated by evidence for a strong genetic component, our prior genome-wide association study (GWAS) efforts for childhood obesity revealed 19 independent signals for the trait; however, the mechanism of action of these loci remains to be elucidated. To molecularly characterize these childhood obesity loci we sought to determine the underlying causal variants and the corresponding effector genes within diverse cellular contexts. Integrating childhood obesity GWAS summary statistics with our existing 3D genomic datasets for 57 human cell types, consisting of high-resolution promoter-focused Capture-C/Hi-C, ATAC-seq, and RNA-seq, we applied stratified LD score regression and calculated the proportion of genome-wide SNP heritability attributable to cell type-specific features, revealing pancreatic alpha cell enrichment as the most statistically significant. Subsequent chromatin contact-based fine-mapping was carried out for genome-wide significant childhood obesity loci and their linkage disequilibrium proxies to implicate effector genes, yielded the most abundant number of candidate variants and target genes at the BDNF, ADCY3, TMEM18 and FTO loci in skeletal muscle myotubes and the pancreatic beta-cell line, EndoC-BH1. One novel implicated effector gene, ALKAL2 - an inflammation-responsive gene in nerve nociceptors - was observed at the key TMEM18 locus across multiple immune cell types. Interestingly, this observation was also supported through colocalization analysis using expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) derived from the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) dataset, supporting an inflammatory and neurologic component to the pathogenesis of childhood obesity. Our comprehensive appraisal of 3D genomic datasets generated in a myriad of different cell types provides genomic insights into pediatric obesity pathogenesis.

CHEX-seq detects single-cell genomic single-stranded DNA with catalytical potential.

Genomic DNA (gDNA) undergoes structural interconversion between single- and double-stranded states during transcription, DNA repair and replication, which is critical for cellular homeostasis. We describe "CHEX-seq" which identifies the single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) in situ in individual cells. CHEX-seq uses 3'-terminal blocked, light-activatable probes to prime the copying of ssDNA into complementary DNA that is sequenced, thereby reporting the genome-wide single-stranded chromatin landscape. CHEX-seq is benchmarked in human K562 cells, and its utilities are demonstrated in cultures of mouse and human brain cells as well as immunostained spatially localized neurons in brain sections. The amount of ssDNA is dynamically regulated in response to perturbation. CHEX-seq also identifies single-stranded regions of mitochondrial DNA in single cells. Surprisingly, CHEX-seq identifies single-stranded loci in mouse and human gDNA that catalyze porphyrin metalation in vitro, suggesting a catalytic activity for genomic ssDNA. We posit that endogenous DNA enzymatic activity is a function of genomic ssDNA.

Variant-to-function analysis of the childhood obesity chr12q13 locus implicates rs7132908 as a causal variant within the 3' UTR of FAIM2.

The ch12q13 obesity locus is among the most significant childhood obesity loci identified in genome-wide association studies. This locus resides in a non-coding region within FAIM2; thus, the underlying causal variant(s) presumably influence disease susceptibility via an influence on cis-regulation within the genomic region. We implicated rs7132908 as a putative causal variant at this locus leveraging a combination of our inhouse 3D genomic data, public domain datasets, and several computational approaches. Using a luciferase reporter assay in human primary astrocytes, we observed allele-specific cis-regulatory activity of the immediate region harboring rs7132908. Motivated by this finding, we went on to generate isogenic human embryonic stem cell lines homozygous for either rs7132908 allele with CRISPR-Cas9 homology-directed repair to assess changes in gene expression due to genotype and chromatin accessibility throughout a differentiation to hypothalamic neurons, a key cell type known to regulate feeding behavior. We observed that the rs7132908 obesity risk allele influenced the expression of FAIM2 along with other genes, decreased the proportion of neurons produced during differentiation, up-regulated cell death gene sets, and conversely down-regulated neuron differentiation gene sets. We have therefore functionally validated rs7132908 as a causal obesity variant which temporally regulates nearby effector genes at the ch12q13 locus and influences neurodevelopment and survival.

Immune status of the murine 22q11.2 deletion syndrome model.

Mice modeling the hemizygous deletion of chromosome 22q11.2 (22qMc) have been utilized to address various clinical phenotypes associated with the disease, including cardiac malformations, altered neural circuitry, and behavioral deficits. Yet, the status of the T cell compartment, an important clinical concern among 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22qDS) patients, has not been addressed. While infancy and early childhood in 22qDS are associated with deficient T cell numbers and thymic hypoplasia, which can be severe in a small subset of patients, studies suggest normalization of the T cell counts by adulthood. We found that adult 22qMc do not exhibit thymic hypoplasia or altered thymic T cell development. Our findings that immune cell counts and inflammatory T cell activation are unaffected in 22qMc lend support to the hypothesis that human 22qDS immunodeficiencies are secondary to thymic hypoplasia, rather than intrinsic effects due to the deletion. Furthermore, the 22q11.2 deletion does not impact the differentiation capacity of T cells, nor their activity and response during inflammatory activation. Thus, 22qMc reflects the T cell compartment in adult 22qDS patients, and our findings suggest that 22qMc may serve as a novel model to address experimental and translational aspects of immunity in 22qDS.

Deficits in Seizure Threshold and Other Behaviors in Adult Mice without Gross Neuroanatomic Injury after Late Gestation Transient Prenatal Hypoxia.

Intrauterine hypoxia is a common cause of brain injury in children resulting in a broad spectrum of long-term neurodevelopmental sequela, including life-long disabilities that can occur even in the absence of severe neuroanatomic damage. Postnatal hypoxia-ischemia rodent models are commonly used to understand the effects of ischemia and transient hypoxia on the developing brain. Postnatal models, however, have some limitations. First, they do not test the impact of placental pathologies on outcomes from hypoxia. Second, they primarily recapitulate severe injury because they provoke substantial cell death, which is not seen in children with mild hypoxic injury. Lastly, they do not model preterm hypoxic injury. Prenatal models of hypoxia in mice may allow us to address some of these limitations to expand our understanding of developmental brain injury. The published rodent models of prenatal hypoxia employ multiple days of hypoxic exposure or complicated surgical procedures, making these models challenging to perform consistently in mice. Furthermore, large animal models suggest that transient prenatal hypoxia without ischemia is sufficient to lead to significant functional impairment to the developing brain. However, these large animal studies are resource-intensive and not readily amenable to mechanistic molecular studies. Therefore, here we characterized the effect of late gestation (embryonic day 17.5) transient prenatal hypoxia (5% inspired oxygen) on long-term anatomical and neurodevelopmental outcomes in mice. Late gestation transient prenatal hypoxia increased hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha protein levels (a marker of hypoxic exposure) in the fetal brain. Hypoxia exposure predisposed animals to decreased weight at postnatal day 2, which normalized by day 8. However, hypoxia did not affect gestational age at birth, litter size at birth, or pup survival. No differences in fetal brain cell death or long-term gray or white matter changes resulted from hypoxia. Animals exposed to prenatal hypoxia did have several long-term functional consequences, including sex-dichotomous changes. Hypoxia exposure was associated with a decreased seizure threshold and abnormalities in hindlimb strength and repetitive behaviors in males and females. Males exposed to hypoxia had increased anxiety-related deficits, whereas females had deficits in social interaction. Neither sex developed any motor or visual learning deficits. This study demonstrates that late gestation transient prenatal hypoxia in mice is a simple, clinically relevant paradigm for studying putative environmental and genetic modulators of the long-term effects of hypoxia on the developing brain.

MitoScape: A big-data, machine-learning platform for obtaining mitochondrial DNA from next-generation sequencing data.

The growing number of next-generation sequencing (NGS) data presents a unique opportunity to study the combined impact of mitochondrial and nuclear-encoded genetic variation in complex disease. Mitochondrial DNA variants and in particular, heteroplasmic variants, are critical for determining human disease severity. While there are approaches for obtaining mitochondrial DNA variants from NGS data, these software do not account for the unique characteristics of mitochondrial genetics and can be inaccurate even for homoplasmic variants. We introduce MitoScape, a novel, big-data, software for extracting mitochondrial DNA sequences from NGS. MitoScape adopts a novel departure from other algorithms by using machine learning to model the unique characteristics of mitochondrial genetics. We also employ a novel approach of using rho-zero (mitochondrial DNA-depleted) data to model nuclear-encoded mitochondrial sequences. We showed that MitoScape produces accurate heteroplasmy estimates using gold-standard mitochondrial DNA data. We provide a comprehensive comparison of the most common tools for obtaining mtDNA variants from NGS and showed that MitoScape had superior performance to compared tools in every statistically category we compared, including false positives and false negatives. By applying MitoScape to common disease examples, we illustrate how MitoScape facilitates important heteroplasmy-disease association discoveries by expanding upon a reported association between hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and mitochondrial haplogroup T in men (adjusted p-value = 0.003). The improved accuracy of mitochondrial DNA variants produced by MitoScape will be instrumental in diagnosing disease in the context of personalized medicine and clinical diagnostics.

Association of Mitochondrial Biogenesis With Variable Penetrance of Schizophrenia.

Importance: Discovery of mechanisms that underlie variable penetrance for neuropsychiatric illness in the context of genetic variants that carry elevated risk can advance novel treatment approaches for these disorders. Objective: To test the hypothesis that mitochondrial compensation is associated with the variable penetrance of schizophrenia in the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS). Design, Setting, and Participants: This case-control study compared measures of mitochondrial function and the expression of related genes in 14 induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons from typically developing control individuals (6 lines) and from adults with 22q11DS (8 lines). The individuals with 22q11DS included 2 groups, those carrying a diagnosis of schizophrenia and those without this diagnosis (4 lines each). Similar measures were made of lymphoblastic cells lines (LCLs) from a separate group of adults with 22q11DS with (10 lines) or without (8 lines) schizophrenia. The study included samples derived from a clinical setting. The induced pluripotent stem cell lines were derived from individuals with 22q11DS with or without a diagnosis of schizophrenia at Stanford University. The LCLs were from adults within the 22q and You Center at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. Data were analyzed between July 1, 2019, and January 24, 2021. Main Outcomes and Measures: Total adenosine triphosphate (ATP), oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) complex activity, and messenger RNA expression via reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction of selected genes encoding for mitochondrial proteins. Results: Study participants included men and women aged 18 to 37 years. Of 32 participants, the mean (SD) age of men was 27 (1.9) years and of women was 29 (1.2) years. Replicating a previous study, neurons from the 22q11DS and schizophrenia (22q+Sz) group had reduced ATP levels (mean [SD], 15.6 [1.5] vs 21.9 [1.4]; P = .02) and reduced OXPHOS activity (ie, complex I; 1.51 [0.1] vs 1.89 [0.1]; P = .01). These deficits were not present in neurons from individuals with 22q11DS without schizophrenia (22q[-]Sz). In this group, the expression of multiple genes encoding OXPHOS subunits was significantly upregulated. For example, compared with control individuals, NDUFV2 expression was increased by 50% in the 22q(-)Sz group (P < .001) but not significantly changed in the 22q+Sz group. Expression of genes driving mitochondrial biogenesis, including PGC1α, showed a similar pattern of upregulation in the 22q(-)Sz group compared with the control and the 22q+Sz groups. Stimulation of mitochondrial biogenesis normalizes the ATP deficit seen in 22q+Sz neurons. Finally, using LCLs from a separate group of adults with 22q11DS, evidence for enhanced mitochondrial biogenesis was again found in the 22q(-)Sz group. Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, an increase in mitochondrial biogenesis and function was associated with the absence of schizophrenia in neurons and LCLs from individuals with 22q11DS, but the deficit in the 22q+Sz group was reversible by agents that enhance mitochondrial biogenesis. Enhancement of mitochondrial biogenesis may provide a targetable opportunity for treatment or prevention of this disorder in individuals with 22q11DS.

Disruption of the blood-brain barrier in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

Neuroimmune dysregulation is implicated in neuropsychiatric disorders including schizophrenia. As the blood-brain barrier is the immunological interface between the brain and the periphery, we investigated whether this vascular phenotype is intrinsically compromised in the most common genetic risk factor for schizophrenia, the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22qDS). Blood-brain barrier like endothelium differentiated from human 22qDS+schizophrenia-induced pluripotent stem cells exhibited impaired barrier integrity, a phenotype substantiated in a mouse model of 22qDS. The proinflammatory intercellular adhesion molecule-1 was upregulated in 22qDS+schizophrenia-induced blood-brain barrier and in 22qDS mice, indicating compromise of the blood-brain barrier immune privilege. This immune imbalance resulted in increased migration/activation of leucocytes crossing the 22qDS+schizophrenia blood-brain barrier. We also found heightened astrocyte activation in murine 22qDS, suggesting that the blood-brain barrier promotes astrocyte-mediated neuroinflammation. Finally, we substantiated these findings in post-mortem 22qDS brain tissue. Overall, the barrier-promoting and immune privilege properties of the 22qDS blood-brain barrier are compromised, and this might increase the risk for neuropsychiatric disease.

Protocol for Tri-culture of hiPSC-Derived Neurons, Astrocytes, and Microglia.

This protocol establishes a tri-culture of hiPSC-derived neurons, astrocytes, and microglia for the study of cellular interactions during homeostasis, injury, and disease. This system allows for mechanistic studies that can identify the roles of individual cell types in disease and injury response in a physiologically relevant, all-human system. This protocol utilizes and modifies prior differentiations. Limitations include the prolonged maturation of human astrocytes and neurons and scalability. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Ryan et al. (2020).

Modular, Circuit-Based Interventions Rescue Hippocampal-Dependent Social and Spatial Memory in a 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome Mouse Model.

BACKGROUND: 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22qDS) manifests with myriad symptoms, including multiple neuropsychiatric disorders. Complications associated with the polygenic haploinsufficiency make 22qDS symptoms particularly difficult to manage with traditional therapeutic approaches. However, the varying mechanistic consequences often culminate to generate inappropriate regulation of neuronal circuit activity. We explored whether managing this aberrant activity in adults could be a therapeutically beneficial strategy. METHODS: To assess and dissect hippocampal circuit function, we performed functional imaging in acute slices and targeted eloquent circuits (specific subcircuits tied to specific behavioral tasks) to provide relevant behavioral outputs. For example, the ventral and dorsal CA1 regions critically support social and spatial discrimination, respectively. We focally introduced chemogenetic constructs in 34 control and 24 22qDS model mice via adeno-associated viral vectors, driven by excitatory neuron-specific promoter elements, to manipulate circuit recruitment in an on-demand fashion. RESULTS: 22qDS model mice exhibited CA1 excitatory ensemble hyperexcitability and concomitant behavioral deficits in both social and spatial memory. Remarkably, acute chemogenetic inhibition of pyramidal cells successfully corrected memory deficits and did so in a regionally specific manner: ventrally targeted constructs rescued only social behavior, while those expressed dorsally selectively affected spatial memory. Additionally, manipulating activity in control mice could recapitulate the memory deficits in a regionally specific manner. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that retuning activity dysregulation can rescue function in disease-altered circuits, even in the face of a polygenetic haploinsufficiency with a strong developmental component. Targeting circuit excitability in a focal, modular manner may prove to be an effective therapeutic for treatment-resistant symptoms of mental illness.

Generation of cerebral cortical GABAergic interneurons from pluripotent stem cells.

The cerebral cortex functions by the complex interactions of intrinsic and extrinsic neuronal activities, glial actions, and the effects of humoral factors. The intrinsic neuronal influences are mediated by two major subclasses: excitatory glutamatergic neurons that generally have axonal projections extending beyond the neuron's locality and inhibitory GABAergic neurons that generally project locally. These interneurons can be grouped based on morphological, neurochemical, electrophysiological, axonal targeting, and circuit influence characteristics. Cortical interneurons (CIns) can also be grouped based on their origins within the subcortical telencephalon. Interneuron subtypes, of which a dozen or more are thought to exist, are characterized by combinations of these subgrouping features. Due to their well-documented relevance to the causes of and treatments for neuropsychiatric disorders, and to their remarkable capacity to migrate extensively following transplantation, there has been tremendous interest in generating cortical GABAergic interneurons from human pluripotent stem cells. In this concise review, we discuss recent progress in understanding how interneuron subtypes are generated in vivo, and how that progress is being applied to the generation of rodent and human CIns in vitro. In addition, we will discuss approaches for the rigorous designation of interneuron subgroups or subtypes in transplantation studies, and challenges to this field, including the protracted maturation of human interneurons.

Neuroinflammation and EIF2 Signaling Persist despite Antiretroviral Treatment in an hiPSC Tri-culture Model of HIV Infection.

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) affect over half of HIV-infected individuals, despite antiretroviral therapy (ART). Therapeutically targetable mechanisms underlying HAND remain elusive, partly due to a lack of a representative model. We developed a human-induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-based model, independently differentiating hiPSCs into neurons, astrocytes, and microglia, and systematically combining to generate a tri-culture with or without HIV infection and ART. Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis on tri-cultures with HIV-infected microglia revealed inflammatory signatures in the microglia and EIF2 signaling in all three cell types. Treatment with the antiretroviral compound efavirenz (EFZ) mostly resolved these signatures. However, EFZ increased RhoGDI and CD40 signaling in the HIV-infected microglia. This activation was associated with a persistent increase in transforming growth factor α production by microglia. This work establishes a tri-culture that recapitulates key features of HIV infection in the CNS and provides a new model to examine the effects of infection, its treatment, and other co-morbid conditions.

Mitochondrial deficits in human iPSC-derived neurons from patients with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia (SZ) is a highly heterogeneous disorder in both its symptoms and risk factors. One of the most prevalent genetic risk factors for SZ is the hemizygous microdeletion at chromosome 22q11.2 (22q11DS) that confers a 25-fold increased risk. Six of the genes directly disrupted in 22qDS encode for mitochondrial-localizing proteins. Here, we test the hypothesis that stem cell-derived neurons from subjects with the 22q11DS and SZ have mitochondrial deficits relative to typically developing controls. Human iPSCs from four lines of affected subjects and five lines of controls were differentiated into forebrain-like excitatory neurons. In the patient group, we find significant reductions of ATP levels that appear to be secondary to reduced activity in oxidative phosphorylation complexes I and IV. Protein products of mitochondrial-encoded genes are also reduced. As one of the genes deleted in the 22q11.2 region is MRPL40, a component of the mitochondrial ribosome, we generated a heterozygous mutation of MRPL40 in a healthy control iPSC line. Relative to its isogenic control, this line shows similar deficits in mitochondrial DNA-encoded proteins, ATP level, and complex I and IV activity. These results suggest that in the 22q11DS MRPL40 heterozygosity leads to reduced mitochondria ATP production secondary to altered mitochondrial protein levels. Such defects could have profound effects on neuronal function in vivo.

Dosage Counts: Correcting Trisomy-21-Related Phenotypes in Human Organoids and Xenografts.

Studies in mice suggest that Olig2 gene dosage alters cerebral cortical interneuron development and contributes to trisomy-21/Down-syndrome-related intellectual disability. Xu et al. (2019) extend these studies through the remarkable use of cerebral organoid and human iPSC/mouse brain chimera experimental systems that provide an opportunity for the development of novel therapeutics.