Zebrafish capable of generating future state prediction error show improved active avoidance behavior in virtual reality.

Animals make decisions under the principle of reward value maximization and surprise minimization. It is still unclear how these principles are represented in the brain and are reflected in behavior. We addressed this question using a closed-loop virtual reality system to train adult zebrafish for active avoidance. Analysis of the neural activity of the dorsal pallium during training revealed neural ensembles assigning rules to the colors of the surrounding walls. Additionally, one third of fish generated another ensemble that becomes activated only when the real perceived scenery shows discrepancy from the predicted favorable scenery. The fish with the latter ensemble escape more efficiently than the fish with the former ensembles alone, even though both fish have successfully learned to escape, consistent with the hypothesis that the latter ensemble guides zebrafish to take action to minimize this prediction error. Our results suggest that zebrafish can use both principles of goal-directed behavior, but with different behavioral consequences depending on the repertoire of the adopted principles.

Social conflict resolution regulated by two dorsal habenular subregions in zebrafish.

When animals encounter conflict they initiate and escalate aggression to establish and maintain a social hierarchy. The neural mechanisms by which animals resolve fighting behaviors to determine such social hierarchies remain unknown. We identified two subregions of the dorsal habenula (dHb) in zebrafish that antagonistically regulate the outcome of conflict. The losing experience reduced neural transmission in the lateral subregion of dHb (dHbL)-dorsal/intermediate interpeduncular nucleus (d/iIPN) circuit. Silencing of the dHbL or medial subregion of dHb (dHbM) caused a stronger predisposition to lose or win a fight, respectively. These results demonstrate that the dHbL and dHbM comprise a dual control system for conflict resolution of social aggression.

The habenulo-raphe serotonergic circuit encodes an aversive expectation value essential for adaptive active avoidance of danger.

Anticipation of danger at first elicits panic in animals, but later it helps them to avoid the real threat adaptively. In zebrafish, as fish experience more and more danger, neurons in the ventral habenula (vHb) showed tonic increase in the activity to the presented cue and activated serotonergic neurons in the median raphe (MR). This neuronal activity could represent the expectation of a dangerous outcome and be used for comparison with a real outcome when the fish is learning how to escape from a dangerous to a safer environment. Indeed, inhibiting synaptic transmission from vHb to MR impaired adaptive avoidance learning, while panic behavior induced by classical fear conditioning remained intact. Furthermore, artificially triggering this negative outcome expectation signal by optogenetic stimulation of vHb neurons evoked place avoidance behavior. Thus, vHb-MR circuit is essential for representing the level of expected danger and behavioral programming to adaptively avoid potential hazard.

Imaging of neural ensemble for the retrieval of a learned behavioral program.

The encoding of long-term associative memories for learned behaviors is a fundamental brain function. Yet, how behavior is stably consolidated and retrieved in the vertebrate cortex is poorly understood. We trained zebrafish in aversive reinforcement learning and measured calcium signals across their entire brain during retrieval of the learned response. A discrete area of dorsal telencephalon that was inactive immediately after training became active the next day. Analysis of the identified area indicated that it was specific and essential for long-term memory retrieval and contained electrophysiological responses entrained to the learning stimulus. When the behavioral rule changed, a rapid spatial shift in the functional map across the telencephalon was observed. These results demonstrate that the retrieval of long-term memories for learned behaviors can be studied at the whole-brain scale in behaving zebrafish in vivo. Moreover, the findings indicate that consolidated memory traces can be rapidly modified during reinforcement learning.

The habenula is crucial for experience-dependent modification of fear responses in zebrafish.

The zebrafish dorsal habenula (dHb) shows conspicuous asymmetry in its connection with the interpeduncular nucleus (IPN) and is equivalent to the mammalian medial habenula. Genetic inactivation of the lateral subnucleus of dHb (dHbL) biased fish towards freezing rather than the normal flight response to a conditioned fear stimulus, suggesting that the dHbL-IPN pathway is important for controlling experience-dependent modification of fear responses.

Identification of the zebrafish ventral habenula as a homolog of the mammalian lateral habenula.

The mammalian habenula consists of the medial and lateral habenulae. Recent behavioral and electrophysiological studies suggested that the lateral habenula plays a pivotal role in controlling motor and cognitive behaviors by influencing the activity of dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons. Despite the functional significance, manipulating neural activity in this pathway remains difficult because of the absence of a genetically accessible animal model such as zebrafish. To address the level of lateral habenula conservation in zebrafish, we applied the tract-tracing technique to GFP (green fluorescent protein)-expressing transgenic zebrafish to identify habenular neurons that project to the raphe nuclei, a major target of the mammalian lateral habenula. Axonal tracing in live and fixed fish showed projection of zebrafish ventral habenula axons to the ventral part of the median raphe, but not to the interpeduncular nucleus where the dorsal habenula projected. The ventral habenula expressed protocadherin 10a, a specific marker of the rat lateral habenula, whereas the dorsal habenula showed no such expression. Gene expression analyses revealed that the ventromedially positioned ventral habenula in the adult originated from the region of primordium lateral to the dorsal habenula during development. This suggested that zebrafish habenulae emerge during development with mediolateral orientation similar to that of the mammalian medial and lateral habenulae. These findings indicated that the lateral habenular pathways are evolutionarily conserved pathways and might control adaptive behaviors in vertebrates through the regulation of monoaminergic activities.

Regulation of nodal signalling and mesendoderm formation by TARAM-A, a TGFbeta-related type I receptor.

Nodal signalling is essential for many developmental events during vertebrate development, including the establishment of left-right asymmetry, of dorsoventral axis of the central nervous system, and endoderm and mesoderm formation. The zebrafish TGFbeta-related type I receptor, TARAM-A (Tar), is expressed in the prospective mesendodermal territory and, when activated, can transfate early blastomeres into endoderm, suggesting that Nodal and Tar may represent similar signalling pathways. We have analysed the functional relationships between those two pathways in zebrafish. We first demonstrate that tar and the zebrafish nodal genes cyc and sqt functionally interact. We also show that a dominant-negative isoform of Tar, TarMR, interferes specifically with the function of Cyc and Sqt in vitro, but does not interfere with the function of BMP2, another TGFbeta-related molecule. TarMR interferes also with Nodal signalling in vivo since it enhances the phenotype of embryos with weakened Nodal signalling. Overexpression of tarMR in wild-type embryos interfered with the formation of endoderm-derived structures. Conversely, overexpression of tar enlarged the presumptive mesendodermal region at the onset of gastrulation. Together, our results point to Tar as an essential factor for endoderm formation and an important modulator of Nodal signalling, potentially representing one of the Nodal receptors. (c)2001 Elsevier Science.

Molecular integration of casanova in the Nodal signalling pathway controlling endoderm formation.

Endoderm originates from a large endomesodermal field requiring Nodal signalling. The mechanisms that ensure segregation of endoderm from mesoderm are not fully understood. We first show that the timing and dose of Nodal activation are crucial for endoderm formation and the endoderm versus mesoderm fate choice, because sustained Nodal signalling is required to ensure endoderm formation but transient signalling is sufficient for mesoderm formation. In zebrafish, downstream of Nodal signals, three genes encoding transcription factors (faust, bonnie and clyde and the recently identified gene casanova) are required for endoderm formation and differentiation. However their positions within the pathway are not completely established. In the present work, we show that casanova is the earliest specification marker for endodermal cells and that its expression requires bonnie and clyde. Furthermore, we have analysed the molecular activities of casanova on endoderm formation and found that it can induce endodermal markers and repress mesodermal markers during gastrulation, as well as change the fate of marginal blastomeres to endoderm. Overexpression of casanova also restores endoderm markers in the absence of Nodal signalling. In addition, casanova efficiently restores later endodermal differentiation in these mutants, but this process requires, in addition, a partial activation of Nodal signalling.