Climate risks and adaptation strategies of farmers in East Africa and South Asia.

Understanding major climate risks, adaptation strategies, and factors influencing the choice of those strategies is crucial to reduce farmers' vulnerability. Employing comprehensive data from 2822 farm households in Ethiopia and Kenya (East Africa; EA) and 1902 farm households in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal (South Asia; SA), this study investigates the main climate risks that farmers faced and the adaptation strategies they used. Among others, excessive rainfall and heightened crop pest/disease incidence are commonly observed climate-induced risks in all study areas, while cyclones and salinity are unique to Bangladesh. Drought is prevalent in Ethiopia, India, Kenya, and Nepal. Farmers in those countries responded with strategies that include change in farming practices, sustainable land management, reduce consumption, sell assets, use savings and borrowings, seek alternative employment and assistance from government or NGO. In general, farmers faced several multiple climate risks simultaneously and they responded with multiple adaptation strategies. Therefore, this study used a multivariate probit (MVP) approach to examine the factors influencing the adoption of adaptation strategies. Unlike other studies, we also tested and corrected for possible endogeneity in model estimation. All the countries mentioned have low adaptive capacity to address climate change, which is further weakened by inadequate governance and inefficient institutions. We observed significant differences in the choice of adaptation strategies between male-headed households (MHHs) and female-headed households (FHHs), as well as across countries. Generally, MHHs are more likely to seek additional employment and change agricultural practices, while FHHs and households headed by older persons tend to reduce consumption and rely on savings and borrowings. Institutional support for adaptation is much less in EA compared to SA. Training on alternative farming practices, enhancing non-farm employment options, better institutional support, and social security for older farmers are crucial for climate change adaptation in both regions.

Factors affecting farmers' use of organic and inorganic fertilizers in South Asia.

Fertilizer, though one of the most essential inputs for increasing agricultural production, is a leading cause of nitrous oxide emissions from agriculture, contributing significantly to global warming. Therefore, understanding factors affecting farmers' use of fertilizers is crucial to develop strategies to improve its efficient use and to minimize its negative impacts. Using data from 2528 households across the Indo-Gangetic Plains in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, this study examines the factors affecting farmers' use of organic and inorganic fertilizers for the two most important cereal crops - rice and wheat. Together, these crops provide the bulk of calories consumed in the region. As nitrogen (N) fertilizer is the major source of global warming and other environmental effects, we also examine the factors contributing to its overuse. We applied multiple regression models to understand the factors influencing the use of inorganic fertilizer, Heckman models to understand the likelihood and intensity of organic fertilizer (manure) use, and a probit model to examine the over-use of N fertilizer. Our results indicate that various socio-economic and geographical factors influence the use of organic and inorganic fertilizers in rice and wheat. Across the study sites, N fertilizer over-use is the highest in Haryana (India) and the lowest in Nepal. Across all locations, farmers reported a decline in manure application, concomitant with a lack of awareness of the principles of appropriate fertilizer management that can limit environmental externalities. Educational programs highlighting measures to improving nutrient-use-efficiency and reducing the negative externalities of N fertilizer over-use are proposed to address these problems.

Understanding climate-risk coping strategies among farm households: Evidence from five countries in Eastern and Southern Africa.

Climate change is having a catastrophic impact on the livelihoods of farm households in Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA). This study employs comprehensive data obtained in 2018 from 4351 farm households in five countries to appraise the key climate hazards experienced by farmers, the risk coping methods adopted, and factor influencing the use of these methods. Although droughts, floods, hailstorms, and crop pests/diseases are major climate-induced risks in ESA, droughts are predominant in all these countries. Farm households in ESA have adopted various strategies to address climate risk, which includes changing farming practices, reducing consumption, using savings and borrowing, and seeking new employment. Farming families headed by a female, married, or an elderly member opt to change farming methods and decrease consumption, whereas they are less inclined to look for alternate livelihood options. Farming families with higher livestock endowments commonly use savings or borrow and are unlikely to change farming methods, decrease consumption, and search for alternate employment. Better-off families tend to change farming methods but are unlikely to adopt other risk coping options. Farming families with non-farm livelihood options are unlikely to change farming methods, use savings/borrowings, or decrease consumption, whereas they tend to search for alternate employment. Training on agriculture and economic status are crucial for climate change adaptation in these regions. Findings exhibit substantial differences among the study countries regarding the adoption of coping strategies. Compared to farmers in Kenya, farmers in other countries change agricultural methods to cope with climate shocks. Ethiopian farmers, compared to their Kenyan counterparts, decrease consumption to deal with climate risks, whereas, farmers in Tanzania, Malawi, and Mozambique are less likely to use this option. Similarly, the likelihood of seeking alternative employment as a risk coping strategy is lower among Ethiopian farmers, while it is higher among the farmers in other countries.

Major Climate risks and Adaptation Strategies of Smallholder Farmers in Coastal Bangladesh.

Rural households in South Asia's coastal deltas face numerous livelihood challenges, including risks posed by climatic variability and extreme weather events. This study examines major climate risks, farmers' adaptation strategies, and the factors affecting the choice of those strategies using data collected from 630 households in southwestern coastal Bangladesh. Farmers identified cyclones, excessive rain and flooding, and salinity as direct climate risks. Increased crop diseases/pests and livestock diseases were perceived as indirect risks resulting from climatic variability. Farmers used multiple adaptation strategies against those risks such as modifications in farm management, use of savings and borrowing funds from family and neighbors, and periodically reducing household food consumption. Off-farm employment and seeking assistance from governmental as well as non-governmental organizations (NGOs) were also common adaptation strategies. The results show that male-headed households are more likely to change farming practices and reduce consumption compared with female-headed households that conversely tended to take assistance from NGOs as an adaptation strategy. Ownership of land and livestock, as well as farmers' prior exposure to climate change and educational training, also had a significant effect on the choice of adaptation strategy. Therefore, development interventions and policies that aimed at improving resource endowment and training to farmers on climatic risks and their adaptation strategies can help minimize the impact of climatic risks.