Suicide Triggers Described by Herodotus.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to better understand the triggers of suicide, particularly among the ancient Greek and Persian soldiers and commanders. METHOD: 'Herodotus:TheHistories' is a history of the rulers and soldiery who participated in the Greco-Persian wars (492-449 BCE). A new translation (2013) of this manuscript was studied. Accounts of suicide were collected and collated, with descriptions of circumstances, methods, and probable triggers. RESULTS: Nine accounts of suicide were identified. Eight of these were named individuals (4 Greeks and 4 Persians); of whom, seven were male. Only one (not the female) appeared to act in response to a mental disorder. Other triggers of suicide included guilt, avoidance of dishonour/punishment and altruism. Cutting/ stabbing was the most common method; others included hanging, jumping, poison, and burning (the single female). CONCLUSION: While soldiers at a time of war do not reflect the general community, they are nevertheless members of their society. Thus, this evidence demonstrates that suicide triggered by burdensome circumstances (in addition to mental disorder) was known to the Greek and Persian people more than two millennia ago.

Predicament suicide: an update.

OBJECTIVE: We aim to outline the notion of predicament suicide and progress in the field. CONCLUSION: The term predicament suicide was initially applied when the individual without mental disorder completed suicide to escape intolerable circumstances. Subsequently, painful untreated or unresponsive mental disorder was conceptualized as an internal predicament and the term was applied to all suicide. It continues to be used in both the restricted and broad forms. Our group has substantiated the restricted form by describing suicide in the setting of financial loss, forced marriage and other predicaments. The broad form gave rise to the Operationalized Predicaments of Suicide tool for use in quantitative research. Some literature from other workers supports the general thrust of the notion.

Four centuries of suicide in opera.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the depiction of completed suicide, non-fatal suicidal acts and suicidal thought in Western opera over the past four centuries. DESIGN AND SETTING: Examination of synopses all of the operas listed in a recent monograph covering a selection of operas written in the period 1607-2006. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Frequency of completed suicides, non-fatal suicidal acts and suicidal thoughts over the entire 400-year period and in separate 100-year periods (1607-1706, 1707-1806, 1807-1906 and 1907-2006); circumstances of suicides; sex of the suicidal characters; and, for completed suicide, the method. RESULTS: There were 337 operas in total. In 112 (33%), there was completed suicide alone, non-fatal suicidal acts or suicidal thoughts alone, or both. There was at least one suicide in 74 operas (22%); female characters accounted for 56% of these. Non-fatal suicidal acts or suicidal thoughts were found in 48 operas (14%); male characters accounted for 57% of these. Suicide, non-fatal acts and suicidal thoughts always followed an undesirable event or situation. Cutting or stabbing was the most common method of suicide (26 cases). Other methods included poisoning (15 cases), drowning (10 cases), hanging (four cases), asphyxiation (four cases), "supernatural" methods (four cases), immolation (three cases), jumping from a height (two cases), shooting (one) and blunt trauma (one). Mass suicide occurred on two occasions. CONCLUSIONS: Over several centuries in opera, suicide has been frequently represented as an option when characters have been faced with a distressing event or situation. Historical fluctuations in the frequency of suicidal behaviour in opera may be explained by changes in attitudes towards suicide and its conceptualisation.