Infestin, a thrombin inhibitor presents in Triatoma infestans midgut, a Chagas' disease vector: gene cloning, expression and characterization of the inhibitor.

This work describes the purification, gene cloning and expression of infestin, a thrombin inhibitor from midguts of Triatoma infestans. Infestin is located in the midgut and its purification was performed by anion-exchange and affinity chromatographies. The N-terminal sequence and the sequence of tryptic peptides were determined. Using RT-PCR, total RNA and infestin cDNA information, a DNA fragment was cloned which encodes a multi non-classical Kazal-type serine protease inhibitor. Isolated native infestin has two non-classical Kazal-type domains and shows an apparent molecular mass of 13 kDa, while its gene codes for a protein with four non-classical Kazal-type domains corresponding to an apparent molecular mass of 22 kDa. Two recombinant infestins, r-infestin 1-2 and r-infestin 1-4, were constructed using the vector pVT102U/alpha and expressed in S. cerevisiae. Native and r-infestin 1-2 showed very similar inhibitory activities towards thrombin and trypsin with dissociation constants of 43.5 and 25 pM for thrombin and 2.0 and 3.1 nM for trypsin, respectively. No other serine protease of the blood coagulation cascade was inhibited by the r-infestin 1-2. Surprisingly, r-infestin 1-4 inhibited not only thrombin and trypsin (K(i) of 0.8 and 5.2 nM, respectively), but also factor XIIa, factor Xa and plasmin (K(i) of 78 pM, 59.2 and 1.1 nM, respectively).

Cloning, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of the antistasin-type inhibitor ghilanten (domain I) from Haementeria ghilianii in complex with porcine beta-trypsin.

Ghilanten, isolated from the leech Haementeria ghilianii, is a potent two-domain anticoagulant protein homologous to the factor Xa inhibitor antistasin. A synthetic gene encoding the amino-terminal domain of ghilanten (ghilanten-D1) was constructed, expressed in the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris and purified by heparin-Sepharose chromatography. Recombinant ghilanten-D1 inhibits bovine trypsin and human factor Xa with equilibrium inhibition constants (K(i)) of 126 and 1.2 nM, respectively. Ghilanten-D1 has been crystallized in complex with porcine beta-trypsin; three different-looking but isomorphous crystal forms were obtained, each belonging to the orthorhombic space group P2(1)2(1)2(1). These crystals diffracted to beyond 3.6 A resolution using a rotating-anode X-ray source. A data set complete to 3.7 A resolution was collected.

Bauhinia bauhinioides plasma kallikrein inhibitor: interaction with synthetic peptides and fluorogenic peptide substrates related to the reactive site sequence.

A serine proteinase inhibitor was purified from Bauhinia bauhinioides seeds after extraction with 0.15M NaCl by ion-exchange column chromatography on DEAE-Sephadex, gel filtration on Superose 12 column, Mono Q chromatography or alternatively by affinity chromatography on trypsin- Sepharose. The inhibitor is a single polypeptide chain with molecular mass 20 kDa by gel filtration on Superose 12, but was resolved into two peaks by ion - exchange chromatography on Mono Q (FPLC system). The main eluted peak inhibits trypsin (Ki = 0.6 nM), plasma kallikrein (Ki = 0.35 nM), plasmin (Ki = 33.1 nM), and weakly chymotrypsin (Ki = 2,700 nM), being the most effective plasma kallikrein inhibitor isolated from Bauhinia seeds. Therefore, it was denominated Bauhinia bauhinioides kallikrein inhibitor (BbKI). Activity is thermolabile and on trypsin inhibition optimum pH is 8.0. BbKI displays high homology to other plant Kunitz inhibitors, except for the absence of disulfide bridges, and the only cysteine residue is at the C-terminal position (residue 154) characterizes a distinct member of the Kunitz family. The affinity of the inhibitor to trypsin was confirmed by adsorption to trypsin-Sepharose resin and by isolation of the trypsin-inhibitor complex by gel filtration. Peptides with variations around the reactive site of BbKI (GLPVRFESPLRINIIKESY) were synthesized containing a quenched fluorogenic group. Trypsin but not plasma kallikrein substrates, these peptides strongly inhibited plasma kallikrein.

Cystatins as calpain inhibitors: engineered chicken cystatin- and stefin B-kininogen domain 2 hybrids support a cystatin-like mode of interaction with the catalytic subunit of mu-calpain.

Within the cystatin superfamily, only kininogen domain 2 (KD2) is able to inhibit mu- and m-calpain. In an attempt to elucidate the structural requirements of cystatins for calpain inhibition, we constructed recombinant hybrids of human stefin B (an intracellular family 1 cystatin) with KD2 and deltaL110 deletion mutants of chicken cystatin-KD2 hybrids. Substitution of the N-terminal contact region of stefin B by the corresponding KD2 sequence resulted in a calpain inhibitor of Ki = 188 nM. Deletion of L110, which forms a beta-bulge in family 1 and 2 cystatins but is lacking in KD2, improved inhibition of mu-calpain 4- to 8-fold. All engineered cystatins were temporary inhibitors of calpain due to slow substrate-like cleavage of a single peptide bond corresponding to Gly9-Ala10 in chicken cystatin. Biomolecular interaction analysis revealed that, unlike calpastatin, the cystatin-type inhibitors do not bind to the calmodulin-like domain of the small subunit of calpain, and their interaction with the mu-calpain heterodimer is completely prevented by a synthetic peptide comprising subdomain B of calpastatin domain 1. Based on these results we propose that (i) cystatin-type calpain inhibitors interact with the active site of the catalytic domain of calpain in a similar cystatin-like mode as with papain and (ii) the potential for calpain inhibition is due to specific subsites within the papain-binding regions of the general cystatin fold.

Trypanosome-derived oligopeptidase B is released into the plasma of infected rodents, where it persists and retains full catalytic activity.

A trypsin-like serine peptidase activity, levels of which correlate with blood parasitemia levels, is present in the plasma of rats acutely infected with Trypanosoma brucei brucei. Antibodies to a trypanosome peptidase with a trypsin-like substrate specificity (oligopeptidase B [OP-Tb]) cross-reacted with a protein in the plasma of trypanosome-infected rats on a Western blot. These antibodies also abolished 80% of the activity in the plasma of trypanosome-infected rats, suggesting that the activity may be attributable to a parasite-derived peptidase. We purified the enzyme responsible for the bulk of this activity from parasite-free T. b. brucei-infected rat plasma and confirmed its identity by protein sequencing. We show that live trypanosomes do not release OP-Tb in vitro and propose that disrupted parasites release it into the host circulation, where it is unregulated and retains full catalytic activity and may thus play a role in the pathogenesis of African trypanosomiasis.

Human micro-calpain: simple isolation from erythrocytes and characterization of autolysis fragments.

Heterodimeric p-calpain, consisting of the large (80 kDa) and the small (30 kDa) subunit, was isolated and purified from human erythrocytes by a highly reproducible four-step purification procedure. Obtained material is more than 95% pure and has a specific activity of 6-7 mU/mg. Presence of contaminating proteins could not be detected by HPLC and sequence analysis. During storage at -80 degrees C the enzyme remains fully activatable by Ca2+, although the small subunit is partially processed to a 22 kDa fragment. This novel autolysis product of the small subunit starts with the sequence 60RILG and is further processed to the known 18 kDa fragment. Active forms and typical transient and stable autolysis products of the large subunit were identified by protein sequencing. In casein-zymograms only the activatable forms 80 kDa+30 kDa, 80 kDa+22 kDa and 80 kDa+18 kDa displayed caseinolysis.

A novel type of bifunctional inhibitor directed against proteolytic activity and receptor/ligand interaction. Cystatin with a urokinase receptor binding site.

Cancer invasion and metastasis is a process requiring a coordinated series of (anti-)adhesive, migratory, and pericellular proteolytic events involving various proteases such as urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA)/plasmin, cathepsins B and L, and matrix metalloproteases. Novel types of double-headed inhibitors directed to different tumor-associated proteolytic systems were generated by substitution of a loop in chicken cystatin, which is nonessential for cysteine protease inhibition, with uPA-derived peptides covering the human uPA receptor binding sequence uPA-(19-31). The inhibition constants of these hybrids toward cysteine proteases are similar to those of wild-type cystatin (K(i), papain (pm), 1.9-2.4; K(i), cathepsin B (nm), 1.0-1.7; K(i), cathepsin L (pm), 0.12-0.61). FACS analyses revealed that the hybrids compete for binding of uPA to the cell surface-associated uPA receptor (uPAR) expressed on human U937 cells. The simultaneous interaction of the hybrid molecules with papain and uPAR was analyzed by surface plasmon resonance. The measured K(D) value of a papain-bound cystatin variant harboring the uPAR binding sequence of uPA (chCys-uPA-(19-31)) and soluble uPAR was 17 nm (K(D) value for uPA/uPAR interaction, 5 nm). These results indicate that cystatins with a uPAR binding site are efficient inhibitors of cysteine proteases and uPA/uPAR interaction at the same time. Therefore, these compact and small bifunctional inhibitors may represent promising agents for the therapy of solid tumors.

Leucaena leucocephala serine proteinase inhibitor: primary structure and action on blood coagulation, kinin release and rat paw edema.

A serine proteinase inhibitor isolated from Leucaena leucocephala seeds (LlTI) was purified to homogeneity by acetone fractionation, ion exchange chromatography, gel filtration and reverse phase chromatography (HPLC). SDS-PAGE indicated a protein with M(r) 20000 and two polypeptide chains (alpha-chain, M(r) 15000, and beta-chain, M(r) 5000), the sequence being determined by automatic Edman degradation and by mass spectroscopy. LlTI is a 174 amino acid residue protein which shows high homology to plant Kunitz inhibitors, especially those double chain proteins purified from the Mimosoideae subfamily. LlTI inhibits plasmin (K(i) 3.2 x 10(-10) M), human plasma kallikrein (K(i) 6.3 x 10(-9) M), trypsin (K(i) 2.5 x 10(-8) M) and chymotrypsin (K(i) 1.4 x 10(-8) M). Factor XIIa activity is inhibited but K(i) was not determined, and factor Xa, tissue kallikrein and thrombin are not inhibited by LlTI. The action of LlTI on enzymes that participate in the blood clotting extrinsic pathway is confirmed by the prolongation of activated partial thromboplastin time, used as clotting time assay. The inhibition of the fibrinolytic activity of plasmin was confirmed on the hydrolysis of fibrin plates. LlTI inhibits kinin release from high molecular weight kininogen by human plasma kallikrein in vitro and, administered intravenously, causes a decrease in paw edema induced by carrageenin or heat in male Wistar rats. In addition, lower concentrations of bradykinin were found in limb perfusion fluids of LlTI-treated rats.

Human plasma kallikrein and tissue kallikrein binding to a substrate based on the reactive site of a factor Xa inhibitor isolated from Bauhinia ungulata seeds.

Kunitz type Bauhinia ungulata factor Xa inhibitor (BuXI) was purified from B. ungulata seeds. BuXI inactivates factor Xa and human plasma kallikrein (HuPK) with Ki values of 18.4 and 6.9 nM, respectively. However, Bauhinia variegata trypsin inhibitor (BvTI) which is 70% homologous to BuXI does not inhibit factor Xa and is less efficient on HuPK (Ki = 80 nM). The comparison between BuXI and BvTI reactive site structure indicates differences at Met59, Thr66 and Met67 residues. The hydrolysis rate of quenched fluorescence peptide substrates based on BuXI reactive site sequence, Abz-VMIAALPRTMFIQ-EDDnp (leading peptide), by HuPK and porcine pancreatic kallikrein (PoPK) is low, but hydrolysis is enhanced with Abz-VMIAALPRTMQ-EDDnp, derived from the leading peptide shortened by removing the dipeptide Phe-Ileu from the C-terminal portion, for HuPK (Km = 0.68 microM, k(cat)/Km = 1.3 x 10(6) M(-1) s(-1)), and the shorter substrate Abz-LPRTMQ-EDDnp is better for PoPK (Km = 0.66 microM, k(cat)/Km = 2.2 x 10(3) M(-1) s(-1)). The contribution of substrate methionine residues to HuPK and PoPK hydrolysis differs from that observed with factor Xa. The determined Km and k(cat) values suggest that the substrates interact with kallikreins the same as an enzyme and inhibitor interacts to form complexes.

Functional phage display of leech-derived tryptase inhibitor (LDTI): construction of a library and selection of thrombin inhibitors.

The recombinant phage antibody system pCANTAB 5E has been used to display functionally active leech-derived tryptase inhibitor (LDTI) on the tip of the filamentous M13 phage. A limited combinatorial library of 5.2 x 10(4) mutants was created with a synthetic LDTI gene, using a degenerated oligonucleotide and the pCANTAB 5E phagemid. The mutations were restricted to the P1-P4' positions of the reactive site. Fusion phages and appropriate host strains containing the phagemids were selected after binding to thrombin and DNA sequencing. The variants LDTI-2T (K8R, I9V, S10, K11W, P12A), LDTI-5T (K8R, I9V, S10, K11S, P12L) and LDTI-10T (K8R, I9L, S10, K11D, P12I) were produced with a Saccharomyces cerevisiae expression system. The new inhibitors, LDTI-2T and -5T, prolong the blood clotting time, inhibit thrombin (Ki 302 nM and 28 nM) and trypsin (Ki 6.4 nM and 2.1 nM) but not factor Xa, plasma kallikrein or neutrophil elastase. The variant LDTI-10T binds to thrombin but does not inhibit it. The relevant reactive site sequences of the thrombin inhibiting variants showed a strong preference for arginine in position P1 (K8R) and for valine in P1' (I9V). The data indicate further that LDTI-5T might be a model candidate for generation of active-site directed thrombin inhibitors and that LDTI in general may be useful to generate specific inhibitors suitable for a better understanding of enzyme-inhibitor interactions.

Oligopeptidase B from Trypanosoma brucei, a new member of an emerging subgroup of serine oligopeptidases.

Trypanosoma brucei contains a soluble serine oligopeptidase (OP-Tb) that is released into the host bloodstream during infection, where it has been postulated to participate in the pathogenesis of African trypanosomiasis. Here, we report the identification of a single copy gene encoding the T. brucei oligopeptidase and a homologue from the related trypanosomatid pathogen Leishmania major. The enzymes encoded by these genes belong to an emerging subgroup of the prolyl oligopeptidase family of serine hydrolases, referred to as oligopeptidase B. The trypanosomatid oligopeptidases share 70% amino acid sequence identity with oligopeptidase B from the intracellular pathogen Trypanosoma cruzi, which has a demonstrated role in mammalian host cell signaling and invasion. OP-Tb exhibited no activity toward the prolyl oligopeptidase substrate H-Gly-Pro-7-amido-4-methylcoumarin. Instead, it had activity toward substrates of trypsin-like enzymes, particularly those that have basic amino acids in both P(1) and P(2) (e.g. benzyloxycarbonyl-Arg-Arg-7-amido-4-methylcoumarin k(cat)/K(m) = 529 s(-1) microM(-1)). The activity of OP-Tb was enhanced by reducing agents and by polyamines, suggesting that these agents may act as in vivo regulators of OP-Tb activity. This study provides the basis of the characterization of a novel subgroup of serine oligopeptidases from kinetoplastid protozoa with potential roles in pathogenesis.

Primary structure of Dioclea glabra trypsin inhibitor, DgTI, a Bowman-Birk inhibitor.

A novel serine proteinase inhibitor, DgTI, was purified from Dioclea glabra seeds by acetone precipitation, and ion-exchange and reverse phase chromatography. The inhibitor belongs to the Bowman-Birk family, and its primary sequence, determined by Edman degradation and mass spectrometry, of 67 amino acids is: SSGPCCDRCRCTKSEPPQCQCQDVRLNSCHSACEACVCSHSMPGLCSCLDITHFCHEPCKSSGDDED++ +. Although two reactive sites were determined by susceptibility to trypsin (Lys(13) and His(40)), the inhibitory function was assigned only to the first site. The inhibitor forms a 1:1 complex with trypsin, and Ki is 0.5 x 10(-9) M. Elastase, chymotrypsin, kallikreins, factor Xa, thrombin, and plasmin were not inhibited. By its properties, DgTI is a Bowman-Birk inhibitor with structural and inhibitory properties between the class of Bowman-Birk type I (with a fully active second reactive site), and Bowman-Birk type II (devoid of second reactive site).

A novel phospholipase A2, BJ-PLA2, from the venom of the snake Bothrops jararaca: purification, primary structure analysis, and its characterization as a platelet-aggregation-inhibiting factor.

This paper describes the isolation and primary structure analysis of a new phospholipase A2 with platelet-aggregation-inhibiting activity from the venom of Bothrops jararaca. The protein, named BJ-PLA2, was isolated by means of ammonium sulfate precipitation and anion-exchange and reversed-phase chromatographies and behaved as a homogeneous single-chain protein on SDS-PAGE. Its amino acid sequence was determined by N-terminal sequencing and analysis of overlapped chemical and proteolytic fragments by automated Edman degradation and mass spectometry determination. BJ-PLA2 consists of 124 amino acid residues and has the structural features of snake venom class II phospholipases A2. Chemical modification with p-bromophenacylbromide caused complete loss of enzymatic activity and partially affected the platelet-aggregation-inhibiting activity of BJ-PLA2.

Inhibition of ATPase, GTPase and adenylate kinase activities of the second nucleotide-binding fold of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator by genistein.

In the presence of ATP, genistein, like the ATP analogue adenosine 5'-[beta,gamma-imido]triphosphate (pp[NH]pA), increases cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride currents by prolonging open times. As pp[NH]pA is thought to increase CFTR currents by interfering with ATP hydrolysis at the second nucleotide-binding fold (NBF-2), the present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of genistein on a fusion protein comprising maltose-binding protein (MBP) and NBF-2 (MBP-NBF-2). MBP-NBF-2 exhibited ATPase, GTPase and adenylate kinase activities that were inhibited by genistein in a partial non-competitive manner with respect to ATP or GTP. Ki values for competitive and uncompetitive inhibition were respectively 20 microM and 63 microM for ATPase, 15 microM and 54 microM for GTPase, and 46 microM and 142 microM for adenylate kinase. For ATPase activity, genistein reduced Vmax by 29% and Vmax/Km by 77%. Additional evidence for complex-formation between genistein and MBP-NBF-2 was obtained by the detection of genistein-dependent alterations in the CD spectrum of MBP-NBF-2 that were consistent with the formation of a higher-ordered state. Addition of MBP-NBF-2 increased the fluorescence intensity of genistein, consistent with a change to a less polar environment. pp[NH]pA partially eliminated this enhanced fluorescence of genistein. These observations provide the first direct biochemical evidence that genistein interacts with CFTR, thus inhibiting NBF-2 activity, and suggest a similar mechanism for genistein-dependent stimulation of CFTR chloride currents.

Increased intracellular calpain detection in experimental focal cerebral ischemia.

Calpains are intracellular proteinases whose proteolytic activity is directed mainly against the cytoskeleton and regulatory proteins. We studied the presence of calpain by immunohistochemistry in a rat model of reversible focal cerebral ischemia (3 h) at various times of reperfusion. The numbers of calpain-positive cells on the ischemic side were compared with the non-ischemic side. In controls only 2 +/- 1% cells were positive, whereas the cortex of the ischemic vs the non-ischemic side showed 88 +/- 3% vs 13 +/- 4% calpain-positive cells (p < 0.001), and the basal ganglia 47 +/- 3% vs 13 +/- 4% (p < 0.01) after 3 h ischemia and 24 h reperfusion. This is the first demonstration of elevated intracellular levels of calpains in areas of cerebral ischemia. Longer reperfusion resulted in an increase in calpain positivity.

Quail cystatin: isolation and characterisation of a new member of the cystatin family and its hypothetical interaction with cathepsin B.

Quail cystatin, a new cysteine proteinase inhibitor protein of the cystatin superfamily, was purified from egg albumen of Japanese quail Coturnix coturnix japonica. Amino acid sequencing and mass spectrometry revealed the complete 116 amino acid residue primary structure of a phosphorylated form (13,173 Da). The inhibitor has a 90% sequence identity with chicken cystatin. Its interaction with papain is rapid and tight (Ki = 4.4 pM; k(on) = 1.8x10(7) M(-1) s(-1); k(off) = 0.8x10(-4) s(-1)) and very similar to that of chicken cystatin. Surprisingly, however, cathepsin B was inhibited 15-fold more strongly by quail cystatin (Ki = 47 pM; k(on) = 19x10(7) M(-1) s(-1); k(off) = 9x10(-4) s(-1)) than by chicken cystatin (Ki = 784 pM; k(on) = 2.9x10(7) M(-1) s(-1); k(off) = 24x10(-4) s(-1)). Intuitive comparative conformational inspection of related inhibitors and of cognate enzymes suggest that: (i) the 3D structure of quail cystatin is nearly identical to that of chicken cystatin, (ii) quail cystatin can interact with cathepsin B analogous to the stefin B-papain interaction, if the 'occluding loop' of cathepsin B possesses an 'open' conformation, (iii) the greater inhibition of cathepsin B by quail cystatin compared to chicken cystatins probably arises from two additional ionic interactions between residues Arg15 and Lys112 of the inhibitor and Glu194 and Asp124 of the enzyme, respectively. The two potential salt bridges are located outside of the known contact regions between cystatins and peptidases of the papain family.

The three-dimensional structure of recombinant leech-derived tryptase inhibitor in complex with trypsin. Implications for the structure of human mast cell tryptase and its inhibition.

The x-ray crystal structure of recombinant leech-derived tryptase inhibitor (rLDTI) has been solved to a resolution of 1.9 A in complex with porcine trypsin. The nonclassical Kazal-type inhibitor exhibits the same overall architecture as that observed in solution and in rhodniin. The complex reveals structural aspects of the mast cell proteinase tryptase. The conformation of the binding region of rLDTI suggests that tryptase has a restricted active site cleft. The basic amino terminus of rLDTI, apparently flexible from previous NMR measurements, approaches the 148-loop of trypsin. This loop has an acidic equivalent in tryptase, suggesting that the basic amino terminus could make favorable electrostatic interactions with the tryptase molecule. A series of rLDTI variants constructed to probe this hypothesis confirmed that the amino-terminal Lys-Lys sequence plays a role in inhibition of human lung tryptase but not of trypsin or chymotrypsin. The location of such an acidic surface patch is in accordance with the known low molecular weight inhibitors of tryptase.

Structure-based design of a potent chimeric thrombin inhibitor.

Using the three-dimensional structures of thrombin and the leech-derived tryptase inhibitor (LDTI), which does not inhibit thrombin, we were able to construct three LDTI variants inhibiting thrombin. Trimming of the inhibitor reactive site loop to fit thrombin's narrow active site cleft resulted in inhibition constants (Ki) in the 10 nM concentration range; similar values were obtained by the addition of an acidic C-terminal peptide corresponding to hirudin's tail to LDTI. Combination of both modifications is additive, resulting in very strong inhibition of thrombin (Ki in the picomolar range). On the one hand, these results confirm the significance of the restricted active site cleft of thrombin in determining its high cleavage specificity; on the other, they demonstrate that sufficient binding energy at the fibrinogen recognition exosite can force thrombin to accept otherwise unfavorable residues in the active site cleft. The best inhibitor thus obtained is as effective as hirudin in plasma-based clotting assays.

A recombinant polypeptide model of the second nucleotide-binding fold of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator functions as an active ATPase, GTPase and adenylate kinase.

CFTR-NBF-2 expressed and purified in fusion with the maltose-binding protein was shown to catalyse the reaction ATP-->ADP+Pi by three different assays, monitoring ATP turnover, formation of ADP and release of Pi (Km 86 microM, rate constant 0.37 min(-1)). The reaction product ADP inhibits this ATPase activity. In a similar manner the hydrolysis of GTP to GDP and Pi was demonstrated (Km 40 microM, rate constant 0.29 min(-1)). In the presence of AMP the ATPase reaction was superseded by the formation of two ADP from ATP and AMP. As typical for adenylate kinases a distinct AMP-binding site could be verified for CFTR-NBF-2 by the inability of TNP-ATP and AMP to compete for binding. All three enzymatic activities were inhibited by the symmetric double-substrate-mimicking inhibitor Ap5A. As NBF-2 plays a central role in CFTR channel opening and closing the results reported here are fundamental in understanding mechanisms of CFTR channel activity regulation.