Return of Research-Related Genetic Test Results and Genetic Discrimination Concerns: Facilitators and Barriers of Genetic Research Participation in Diverse Groups.

BACKGROUND: Most genetics studies lack the diversity necessary to ensure that all groups benefit from genetic research. OBJECTIVES: To explore facilitators and barriers to genetic research participation. METHODS: We conducted a survey on genetics in research and healthcare from November 15, 2017 to February 28, 2018 among adult Kaiser Permanente (KP) members who had been invited to participate in the KP biobank (KP Research Bank). We used logistic regression to calculate adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) comparing the willingness to participate in genetic research under different return of results scenarios and genetic discrimination concerns between groups, according to their demographic characteristics. RESULTS: A total of 57,331 KP members were invited to participate, and 10,369 completed the survey (18% response rate). Respondents were 65% female, 44% non-Hispanic White (NH White), 22% Asian/Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander (Asian/PI), 19% non-Hispanic Black (NH Black), and 16% Hispanic. Respondents willing to participate in genetic research ranged from 22% with no results returned to 87% if health-related genetic results were returned. We also found variation by race/ethnicity; when no results were to be returned, Asian/PIs, Hispanics, and NH Blacks were less likely to want to participate than NH Whites (p < 0.05). However, when results were returned, disparities in the willingness to participate disappeared for NH Blacks and Hispanics. Genetic discrimination concerns were more prevalent in Asian/PIs, Hispanics, and NH Blacks than in NH Whites (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Policies that prohibit the return of results and do not address genetic discrimination concerns may contribute to a greater underrepresentation of diverse groups in genetic research.

Demographic differences in the utilization of clinical and direct-to-consumer genetic testing.

Genetic testing has increased over the last decade due to growth in the number of clinical and direct-to-consumer (DTC) tests. However, there is uncertainty about how increased DTC genetic testing affects disparities. Between November 2017 and February 2018, a nationwide electronic survey on experiences with genetic testing was conducted among adult Kaiser Permanente members. Logistic regression was used to calculate adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals comparing receipt of clinical and DTC genetic testing between groups by race and ethnicity. Invitations were sent to 57,331 members, and 10,369 surveys were completed. 22% of respondents had received genetic testing (17% DTC and 5% provider-ordered). Non-Hispanic Whites were more likely than other groups to have clinical genetic testing but were similar to Hispanics and non-Hispanic Blacks in rates of DTC genetic testing. Among those who received any health-related genetic test, 10% reported abnormal results. Of these, non-Hispanic Whites were more likely than other racial/ethnic groups to speak to a medical professional about abnormal results. Results suggest that racial/ethnic disparities in the use of clinical genetic services persist. Additional research is needed to identify lessons learned from DTC genetic testing that may increase equity in the use of clinical genetic services.

Physician Experience with Direct-To-Consumer Genetic Testing in Kaiser Permanente.

Health systems and physicians nationwide aspire to consistently and reliably apply genetic and genomic information to guide disease prevention, management, and treatment. However, clinical information, including genetics/genomics data from within and outside of the care delivery system, is expanding rapidly. Between November 2017 and April 2018, we surveyed 1502 Permanente Medical Group primary care and specialist physicians to assess the degree to which direct-to-consumer genetic test results were being presented to physicians and identify genetics educational needs among physicians (response rate 15%). Adjusted logistic regression (according to respondent characteristics) was used to calculate adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) comparing responses within groups. Results showed 35% and 12% of respondents reported receiving at least one direct-to-consumer health risk genetic result (DTC-health risk) or direct-to-consumer pharmacogenomic test result (DTC-PGx), respectively, from a patient in the past year. Of those receiving at least one test result, 40% (DTC-health risk) and 39% (DTC-PGx) of physicians reported 1+ referral(s); 78% (DTC-health risk) and 42% (DTC-PGx) of referrals were to clinical genetics. In total, 85% of physicians would spend ≥2 h/year on genetics/genomics education.

Correction: A collaborative translational research framework for evaluating and implementing the appropriate use of human genome sequencing to improve health.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002631.].

A collaborative translational research framework for evaluating and implementing the appropriate use of human genome sequencing to improve health.

In a Policy Forum, Muin Khoury and colleagues discuss research on the clinical application of genome sequencing data.

Principles and Recommendations for Standardizing the Use of the Next-Generation Sequencing Variant File in Clinical Settings.

A national workgroup convened by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention identified principles and made recommendations for standardizing the description of sequence data contained within the variant file generated during the course of clinical next-generation sequence analysis for diagnosing human heritable conditions. The specifications for variant files were initially developed to be flexible with regard to content representation to support a variety of research applications. This flexibility permits variation with regard to how sequence findings are described and this depends, in part, on the conventions used. For clinical laboratory testing, this poses a problem because these differences can compromise the capability to compare sequence findings among laboratories to confirm results and to query databases to identify clinically relevant variants. To provide for a more consistent representation of sequence findings described within variant files, the workgroup made several recommendations that considered alignment to a common reference sequence, variant caller settings, use of genomic coordinates, and gene and variant naming conventions. These recommendations were considered with regard to the existing variant file specifications presently used in the clinical setting. Adoption of these recommendations is anticipated to reduce the potential for ambiguity in describing sequence findings and facilitate the sharing of genomic data among clinical laboratories and other entities.

Standards and guidelines for the interpretation of sequence variants: a joint consensus recommendation of the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the Association for Molecular Pathology.

The American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) previously developed guidance for the interpretation of sequence variants.(1) In the past decade, sequencing technology has evolved rapidly with the advent of high-throughput next-generation sequencing. By adopting and leveraging next-generation sequencing, clinical laboratories are now performing an ever-increasing catalogue of genetic testing spanning genotyping, single genes, gene panels, exomes, genomes, transcriptomes, and epigenetic assays for genetic disorders. By virtue of increased complexity, this shift in genetic testing has been accompanied by new challenges in sequence interpretation. In this context the ACMG convened a workgroup in 2013 comprising representatives from the ACMG, the Association for Molecular Pathology (AMP), and the College of American Pathologists to revisit and revise the standards and guidelines for the interpretation of sequence variants. The group consisted of clinical laboratory directors and clinicians. This report represents expert opinion of the workgroup with input from ACMG, AMP, and College of American Pathologists stakeholders. These recommendations primarily apply to the breadth of genetic tests used in clinical laboratories, including genotyping, single genes, panels, exomes, and genomes. This report recommends the use of specific standard terminology-"pathogenic," "likely pathogenic," "uncertain significance," "likely benign," and "benign"-to describe variants identified in genes that cause Mendelian disorders. Moreover, this recommendation describes a process for classifying variants into these five categories based on criteria using typical types of variant evidence (e.g., population data, computational data, functional data, segregation data). Because of the increased complexity of analysis and interpretation of clinical genetic testing described in this report, the ACMG strongly recommends that clinical molecular genetic testing should be performed in a Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments-approved laboratory, with results interpreted by a board-certified clinical molecular geneticist or molecular genetic pathologist or the equivalent.

College of American Pathologists' laboratory standards for next-generation sequencing clinical tests.

CONTEXT: The higher throughput and lower per-base cost of next-generation sequencing (NGS) as compared to Sanger sequencing has led to its rapid adoption in clinical testing. The number of laboratories offering NGS-based tests has also grown considerably in the past few years, despite the fact that specific Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988/College of American Pathologists (CAP) laboratory standards had not yet been developed to regulate this technology. OBJECTIVE: To develop a checklist for clinical testing using NGS technology that sets standards for the analytic wet bench process and for bioinformatics or "dry bench" analyses. As NGS-based clinical tests are new to diagnostic testing and are of much greater complexity than traditional Sanger sequencing-based tests, there is an urgent need to develop new regulatory standards for laboratories offering these tests. DESIGN: To develop the necessary regulatory framework for NGS and to facilitate appropriate adoption of this technology for clinical testing, CAP formed a committee in 2011, the NGS Work Group, to deliberate upon the contents to be included in the checklist. Results . -A total of 18 laboratory accreditation checklist requirements for the analytic wet bench process and bioinformatics analysis processes have been included within CAP's molecular pathology checklist (MOL). CONCLUSIONS: This report describes the important issues considered by the CAP committee during the development of the new checklist requirements, which address documentation, validation, quality assurance, confirmatory testing, exception logs, monitoring of upgrades, variant interpretation and reporting, incidental findings, data storage, version traceability, and data transfer confidentiality.

Methods-based proficiency testing in molecular genetic pathology.

This Perspectives article describes methods-based proficiency testing (MBPT), the benefits and limitations of MBPT, why the time is right for MBPT in molecular diagnostics, and how MBPT for next-generation sequencing is being developed by the College of American Pathologists.

Opportunities and challenges associated with clinical diagnostic genome sequencing: a report of the Association for Molecular Pathology.

This report of the Whole Genome Analysis group of the Association for Molecular Pathology illuminates the opportunities and challenges associated with clinical diagnostic genome sequencing. With the reality of clinical application of next-generation sequencing, technical aspects of molecular testing can be accomplished at greater speed and with higher volume, while much information is obtained. Although this testing is a next logical step for molecular pathology laboratories, the potential impact on the diagnostic process and clinical correlations is extraordinary and clinical interpretation will be challenging. We review the rapidly evolving technologies; provide application examples; discuss aspects of clinical utility, ethics, and consent; and address the analytic, postanalytic, and professional implications.

Fibroblast activation protein-α promotes tumor growth and invasion of breast cancer cells through non-enzymatic functions.

Fibroblast activation protein-α (FAP) is a cell surface, serine protease of the post-prolyl peptidase family that is expressed in human breast cancer but not in normal tissues. Previously, we showed that FAP expression increased tumor growth rates in a mouse model of human breast cancer. Here the role of the proteolytic activities of FAP in promoting tumor growth, matrix degradation and invasion was investigated. Mammary fat pads of female SCID mice were inoculated with breast cancer cells that express FAP and the mice treated with normal saline or Val-boroPro (talabostat); Glu-boroPro (PT-630); or 1-[[(3-hydroxy-1-adamantyl)amino]acetyl]-2-cyano-(S)-pyrrolidine (LAF-237) that inhibit prolyl peptidases. Other mice were injected with breast cancer cells expressing a catalytically inactive mutant of FAP and did not receive inhibitor treatment. PT-630 and LAF-237 did not slow growth of tumors produced by any of the three cell lines expressing FAP. Talabostat slightly decreased the growth rates of the FAP-expressing tumors but because PT-630 and LAF-237 did not, the growth retardation was likely not related to the inhibition of FAP or the related post-prolyl peptidase dipeptidyl peptidase IV. Breast cancer cells expressing a catalytically inactive mutant of FAP (FAP(S624A)) also produced tumors that grew rapidly. In vitro studies revealed that cells expressing wild type FAP or FAP(S624A) degrade extracellular matrix (ECM) more extensively, accumulate higher levels of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in conditioned medium, are more invasive in type I collagen gels, and have altered signaling compared to control transfectants that do not express FAP and form slow growing tumors. We conclude that the proteolytic activity of FAP participates in matrix degradation, but other functions of the protein stimulate increased tumor growth.

Structural markers in prostate cancer serum imaged ex vivo using cryogenic transmission electron microscopy.

We used cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) to identify differences in macromolecular structures present in the serum from healthy individuals (HI) and prostate cancer (PCa) patients and show that these differences are potential markers for disease. Using a murine orthotopic model of human PCa, we determined that some of these structural markers in serum are associated with the tumour burden. These findings signify the potential of this nanoscale ex vivo imaging technology of body fluids as a platform for discovering early markers of PCa and other diseases.

Radiographic severity of knee osteoarthritis is conditional on interleukin 1 receptor antagonist gene variations.

BACKGROUND: A lack of biomarkers that identify patients at risk for severe osteoarthritis (OA) complicates development of disease-modifying OA drugs. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether inflammatory genetic markers could stratify patients with knee OA into high and low risk for destructive disease. METHODS: Genotype associations with knee OA severity were assessed in two Caucasian populations. Fifteen single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in six inflammatory genes were evaluated for association with radiographic severity and with synovial fluid mediators in a subset of the patients. RESULTS: Interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL1RN) SNPs (rs419598, rs315952 and rs9005) predicted Kellgren-Lawrence scores independently in each population. One IL1RN haplotype was associated with lower odds of radiographic severity (OR=0.15; 95% CI 0.065 to 0.349; p<0.0001), greater joint space width and lower synovial fluid cytokine levels. Carriage of the IL1RN haplotype influenced the age relationship with severity. CONCLUSION: IL1RN polymorphisms reproducibly contribute to disease severity in knee OA and may be useful biomarkers for patient selection in disease-modifying OA drug trials.

Targeting fibroblast activation protein inhibits tumor stromagenesis and growth in mice.

Membrane-bound proteases have recently emerged as critical mediators of tumorigenesis, angiogenesis, and metastasis. However, the mechanisms by which they regulate these processes remain unknown. As the cell surface serine protease fibroblast activation protein (FAP) is selectively expressed on tumor-associated fibroblasts and pericytes in epithelial tumors, we set out to investigate the role of FAP in mouse models of epithelial-derived solid tumors. In this study, we demonstrate that genetic deletion and pharmacologic inhibition of FAP inhibited tumor growth in both an endogenous mouse model of lung cancer driven by the K-rasG12D mutant and a mouse model of colon cancer, in which CT26 mouse colon cancer cells were transplanted into immune competent syngeneic mice. Interestingly, growth of only the K-rasG12D-driven lung tumors was also attenuated by inhibition of the closely related protease dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV). Our results indicate that FAP depletion inhibits tumor cell proliferation indirectly, increases accumulation of collagen, decreases myofibroblast content, and decreases blood vessel density in tumors. These data provide proof of principle that targeting stromal cell-mediated modifications of the tumor microenvironment may be an effective approach to treating epithelial-derived solid tumors.

Inhibitor of DASH proteases affects expression of adhesion molecules in osteoclasts and reduces myeloma growth and bone disease.

Dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP) IV activity and/or structure homologues (DASH) are serine proteases implicated in tumourigenesis. We previously found that a DASH protease, fibroblast activation protein (FAP), was involved in osteoclast-induced myeloma growth. Here we further demonstrated expression of various adhesion molecules in osteoclasts cultured alone or cocultured with myeloma cells, and tested the effects of DASH inhibitor, PT-100, on myeloma cell growth, bone disease, osteoclast differentiation and activity, and expression of adhesion molecules in osteoclasts. PT-100 had no direct effects on viability of myeloma cells or mature osteoclasts, but significantly reduced survival of myeloma cells cocultured with osteoclasts. Real-time PCR array for 85 adhesion molecules revealed upregulation of 17 genes in osteoclasts after coculture with myeloma cells. Treatment of myeloma/osteoclast cocultures with PT-100 significantly downregulated 18 of 85 tested genes in osteoclasts, some of which are known to play roles in tumourigenesis and osteoclastogenesis. PT-100 also inhibited osteoclast differentiation and subsequent pit formation. Resorption activity of mature osteoclasts and differentiation of osteoblasts were not affected by PT-100. In primary myelomatous severe combined immunodeficient (SCID)-hu mice PT-100 reduced osteoclast activity, bone resorption and tumour burden. These data demonstrated that DASH proteases are involved in myeloma bone disease and tumour growth.

HIV-1 Env vaccine comprised of electroporated DNA and protein co-administered with Talabostat.

Selection of potent yet low reactogenic adjuvants for protein immunization is important for HIV-1 vaccine development. Immunogenicity of electroporated DNA (HIV env) and recombinant gp120, administered with either QS-21 or the orally administered immunomodulator, Talabostat, was evaluated in BALB/c mice. Electroporation of low dose DNA elicited Th1 cytokines and anti-envelope antibodies. Immunization with gp120 protein alone with or without Talabostat elicited lower Th1 and Th2 cytokine levels but comparable anti-gp120 antibodies to QS-21-formulated protein. Boosting of DNA-primed mice with gp120/Talabostat induced similar anti-gp120 antibody titers and slightly higher levels of Th1 and Th2 cytokines relative to QS-21-formulated protein. Induction of CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells and functional CTL activity was noted. These results highlight the potential use of orally administered Talabostat for efficient protein boosting of antibody and T-cell responses primed by DNA.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the human interleukin-1B gene affect transcription according to haplotype context.

We questioned the significance of haplotype structure in gene regulation by testing whether individual single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within a gene promoter region [interleukin-1-beta (IL1B)] might affect promoter function and, if so, whether function was dependent on haplotype context. We sequenced genomic DNA from 25 individuals of diverse ethnicity, focusing on exons and upstream flanking regions of genes of the cluster. We identified four IL1B promoter region SNPs that were active in transient transfection reporter gene assays. To substantiate allelic differences found in reporter gene assays, we also examined nuclear protein binding to promoter sequence oligonucleotides containing different alleles of the SNPs. The effect of individual SNPs on reporter gene transcription varied according to which alleles of the three other SNPs were present in the promoter construct. The SNP patterns that influenced function reflected common haplotypes that occur in the population, suggesting functionally significant interactions between SNPs according to haplotype context. Of the haplotypes that include the four functional IL1B promoter SNPs (-3737, -1464, -511, -31), the four haplotypes that showed different contextual effects on SNP function accounted for >98% of the estimated haplotypes in Caucasian and African-American populations. This finding underlines the importance of understanding the haplotype structure of populations used for genetic studies and may be especially important in the functional analysis of genetic variation across gene regulatory regions.

Inhibition of NF-kappaB activity by plasmid expressed alphaMSH peptide.

Alpha-Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (alphaMSH) is a neuroimmunomodulatory peptide with remarkable anti-inflammatory properties. Daily or twice daily administration of the peptide reduces the symptoms of several inflammatory animal disease models and the peptide has demonstrated safety in human trials. Unfortunately, the pharmacokinetics of peptide delivery are not favorable from the pharmaceutical perspective. For this reason, plasmid-based vectors were created that constitutively express the immunomodulatory peptide. The fusion constructs encode the 13 amino acids of alphaMSH in frame with the first domain of serum albumin, separated by a linker and furin cleavage sites. The fusion proteins were expressed and processed in human fetal kidney (293) cells. Supernatant from B16/F10 cells transfected with the constructs stimulated secretion of melanin from melanocytes. Furthermore, transfected cytoskeletal muscle (Sol8) cells secreted bioactive alphaMSH that reduced NF-kappaB-mediated transcriptional activation of a luciferase reporter gene. The activity of these vectors provides tools and the impetus for testing the constructs in several animal models of chronic inflammation.