Nuclear and cytosolic fractions of SOX2 synergize as transcriptional and translational co-regulators of cell fate.

Stemness and pluripotency are mediated by transcriptional master regulators that promote self-renewal and repress cell differentiation, among which is the high-mobility group (HMG) box transcription factor SOX2. Dysregulated SOX2 expression, by contrast, leads to transcriptional aberrations relevant to oncogenic transformation, cancer progression, metastasis, therapy resistance, and relapse. Here, we report a post-transcriptional mechanism by which the cytosolic pool of SOX2 contributes to these events in an unsuspected manner. Specifically, a low-complexity region within SOX2's C-terminal segment connects to the ribosome to modulate the expression of cognate downstream factors. Independent of nuclear structures or DNA, this C-terminal functionality alone changes metabolic properties and induces non-adhesive growth when expressed in the cytosol of SOX2 knockout cells. We thus propose a revised model of SOX2 action where nuclear and cytosolic fractions cooperate to impose cell fate decisions via both transcriptional and translational mechanisms.

The Efg1-Bud22 dimer associates with the U14 snoRNP contacting the 5' rRNA domain of an early 90S pre-ribosomal particle.

The DEAD-box helicase Dbp4 plays an essential role during the early assembly of the 40S ribosome, which is only poorly understood to date. By applying the yeast two-hybrid method and biochemical approaches, we discovered that Dbp4 interacts with the Efg1-Bud22 dimer. Both factors associate with early pre-90S particles and smaller complexes, each characterized by a high presence of the U14 snoRNA. A crosslink analysis of Bud22 revealed its contact to the U14 snoRNA and the 5' domain of the nascent 18S rRNA, close to its U14 snoRNA hybridization site. Moreover, depletion of Bud22 or Efg1 specifically affects U14 snoRNA association with pre-ribosomal complexes. Accordingly, we concluded that the role of the Efg1-Bud22 dimer is linked to the U14 snoRNA function on early 90S ribosome intermediates chaperoning the 5' domain of the nascent 18S rRNA. The successful rRNA folding of the 5' domain and the release of Efg1, Bud22, Dpb4, U14 snoRNA and associated snoRNP factors allows the subsequent recruitment of the Kre33-Bfr2-Enp2-Lcp5 module towards the 90S pre-ribosome.

Identification and characterization of sugar-regulated promoters in Chaetomium thermophilum.

The thermophilic fungus Chaetomium thermophilum has been used extensively for biochemical and high-resolution structural studies of protein complexes. However, subsequent functional analyses of these assemblies have been hindered owing to the lack of genetic tools compatible with this thermophile, which are typically suited to other mesophilic eukaryotic model organisms, in particular the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Hence, we aimed to find genes from C. thermophilum that are expressed under the control of different sugars and examine their associated 5' untranslated regions as promoters responsible for sugar-regulated gene expression. To identify sugar-regulated promoters in C. thermophilum, we performed comparative xylose- versus glucose-dependent gene expression studies, which uncovered a number of enzymes with induced expression in the presence of xylose but repressed expression in glucose-supplemented media. Subsequently, we cloned the promoters of the two most stringently regulated genes, the xylosidase-like gene (XYL) and xylitol dehydrogenase (XDH), obtained from this genome-wide analysis in front of a thermostable yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) reporter. With this, we demonstrated xylose-dependent YFP expression by both Western blotting and live-cell imaging fluorescence microscopy. Prompted by these results, we expressed the C. thermophilum orthologue of a well-characterized dominant-negative ribosome assembly factor mutant, under the control of the XDH promoter, which allowed us to induce a nuclear export defect on the pre-60S subunit when C. thermophilum cells were grown in xylose- but not glucose-containing medium. Altogether, our study identified xylose-regulatable promoters in C. thermophilum, which might facilitate functional studies of genes of interest in this thermophilic eukaryotic model organism.

Structure of nascent 5S RNPs at the crossroad between ribosome assembly and MDM2-p53 pathways.

The 5S ribonucleoprotein (RNP) is assembled from its three components (5S rRNA, Rpl5/uL18 and Rpl11/uL5) before being incorporated into the pre-60S subunit. However, when ribosome synthesis is disturbed, a free 5S RNP can enter the MDM2-p53 pathway to regulate cell cycle and apoptotic signaling. Here we reconstitute and determine the cryo-electron microscopy structure of the conserved hexameric 5S RNP with fungal or human factors. This reveals how the nascent 5S rRNA associates with the initial nuclear import complex Syo1-uL18-uL5 and, upon further recruitment of the nucleolar factors Rpf2 and Rrs1, develops into the 5S RNP precursor that can assemble into the pre-ribosome. In addition, we elucidate the structure of another 5S RNP intermediate, carrying the human ubiquitin ligase Mdm2, which unravels how this enzyme can be sequestered from its target substrate p53. Our data provide molecular insight into how the 5S RNP can mediate between ribosome biogenesis and cell proliferation.

SnapShot: Eukaryotic ribosome biogenesis I.

Ribosome production is vital for every cell, and failure causes human diseases. It is driven by ∼200 assembly factors functioning along an ordered pathway from the nucleolus to the cytoplasm. Structural snapshots of biogenesis intermediates from the earliest 90S pre-ribosomes to mature 40S subunits unravel the mechanisms of small ribosome synthesis. To view this SnapShot, open or download the PDF.

Combining APR-246 and HDAC-Inhibitors: A Novel Targeted Treatment Option for Neuroblastoma.

APR-246 (Eprenetapopt/PRIMA-1Met) is a very potent anti-cancer drug in clinical trials and was initially developed as a p53 refolding agent. As an alternative mode of action, the elevation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been proposed. Through an in silico analysis, we investigated the responses of approximately 800 cancer cell lines (50 entities; Cancer Therapeutics Response Portal, CTRP) to APR-246 treatment. In particular, neuroblastoma, lymphoma and acute lymphocytic leukemia cells were highly responsive. With gene expression data from the Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia (CCLE; n = 883) and patient samples (n = 1643) from the INFORM registry study, we confirmed that these entities express low levels of SLC7A11, a previously described predictive biomarker for APR-246 responsiveness. Combining the CTRP drug response data with the respective CCLE gene expression profiles, we defined a novel gene signature, predicting the effectiveness of APR-246 treatment with a sensitivity of 90% and a specificity of 94%. We confirmed the predicted APR-246 sensitivity in 8/10 cell lines and in ex vivo cultures of patient samples. Moreover, the combination of ROS detoxification-impeding APR-246 with approved HDAC-inhibitors, known to elevate ROS, substantially increased APR-246 sensitivity in cell cultures and in vivo in two zebrafish neuroblastoma xenograft models. These data provide evidence that APR-246, in combination with HDAC-inhibitors, displays a novel potent targeted treatment option for neuroblastoma patients.

Mutational Analysis of the Nsa2 N-Terminus Reveals Its Essential Role in Ribosomal 60S Subunit Assembly.

The ribosome assembly factor Nsa2 is part of the Rea1-Rsa4-Nsa2 interconnected relay on nuclear pre-60S particles that is essential for 60S ribosome biogenesis. Cryo-EM structures depict Nsa2 docked via its C-terminal ß-barrel domain to nuclear pre-60S particles, whereas the extended N-terminus, consisting of three α-helical segments, meanders between various 25S rRNA helices with the extreme N-terminus in close vicinity to the Nog1 GTPase center. Here, we tested whether this unappreciated proximity between Nsa2 and Nog1 is of functional importance. Our findings demonstrate that a conservative mutation, Nsa2 Q3N, abolished cell growth and impaired 60S biogenesis. Subsequent genetic and biochemical analyses verified that the Nsa2 N-terminus is required to target Nsa2 to early pre-60S particles. However, overexpression of the Nsa2 N-terminus abolished cytoplasmic recycling of the Nog1 GTPase, and both Nog1 and the Nsa2-N (1-58) construct, but not the respective Nsa2-N (1-58) Q3N mutant, were found arrested on late cytoplasmic pre-60S particles. These findings point to specific roles of the different Nsa2 domains for 60S ribosome biogenesis.

Thermophile 90S Pre-ribosome Structures Reveal the Reverse Order of Co-transcriptional 18S rRNA Subdomain Integration.

Eukaryotic ribosome biogenesis involves RNA folding and processing that depend on assembly factors and small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs). The 90S (SSU-processome) is the earliest pre-ribosome structurally analyzed, which was suggested to assemble stepwise along the growing pre-rRNA from 5' > 3', but this directionality may not be accurate. Here, by analyzing the structure of a series of 90S assembly intermediates from Chaetomium thermophilum, we discover a reverse order of 18S rRNA subdomain incorporation. Large parts of the 18S rRNA 3' and central domains assemble first into the 90S before the 5' domain is integrated. This final incorporation depends on a contact between a heterotrimer Enp2-Bfr2-Lcp5 recruited to the flexible 5' domain and Kre33, which reconstitutes the Kre33-Enp-Brf2-Lcp5 module on the compacted 90S. Keeping the 5' domain temporarily segregated from the 90S scaffold could provide extra time to complete the multifaceted 5' domain folding, which depends on a distinct set of snoRNAs and processing factors.

Nucleoporin Nup155 is part of the p53 network in liver cancer.

Cancer-relevant signalling pathways rely on bidirectional nucleocytoplasmic transport events through the nuclear pore complex (NPC). However, mechanisms by which individual NPC components (Nups) participate in the regulation of these pathways remain poorly understood. We discover by integrating large scale proteomics, polysome fractionation and a focused RNAi approach that Nup155 controls mRNA translation of p21 (CDKN1A), a key mediator of the p53 response. The underlying mechanism involves transcriptional regulation of the putative tRNA and rRNA methyltransferase FTSJ1 by Nup155. Furthermore, we observe that Nup155 and FTSJ1 are p53 repression targets and accordingly find a correlation between the p53 status, Nup155 and FTSJ1 expression in murine and human hepatocellular carcinoma. Our data suggest an unanticipated regulatory network linking translational control by and repression of a structural NPC component modulating the p53 pathway through its effectors.

Eukaryotic Ribosome Assembly.

Ribosomes, which synthesize the proteins of a cell, comprise ribosomal RNA and ribosomal proteins, which coassemble hierarchically during a process termed ribosome biogenesis. Historically, biochemical and molecular biology approaches have revealed how preribosomal particles form and mature in consecutive steps, starting in the nucleolus and terminating after nuclear export into the cytoplasm. However, only recently, due to the revolution in cryo-electron microscopy, could pseudoatomic structures of different preribosomal particles be obtained. Together with in vitro maturation assays, these findings shed light on how nascent ribosomes progress stepwise along a dynamic biogenesis pathway. Preribosomes assemble gradually, chaperoned by a myriad of assembly factors and small nucleolar RNAs, before they reach maturity and enter translation. This information will lead to a better understanding of how ribosome synthesis is linked to other cellular pathways in humans and how it can cause diseases, including cancer, if disturbed.

Assembly Kinetics of Vimentin Tetramers to Unit-Length Filaments: A Stopped-Flow Study.

Intermediate filaments (IFs) are principal components of the cytoskeleton, a dynamic integrated system of structural proteins that provides the functional architecture of metazoan cells. They are major contributors to the elasticity of cells and tissues due to their high mechanical stability and intrinsic flexibility. The basic building block for the assembly of IFs is a rod-like, 60-nm-long tetrameric complex made from two antiparallel, half-staggered coiled coils. In low ionic strength, tetramers form stable complexes that rapidly assemble into filaments upon raising the ionic strength. The first assembly products, "frozen" by instantaneous chemical fixation and viewed by electron microscopy, are 60-nm-long "unit-length" filaments (ULFs) that apparently form by lateral in-register association of tetramers. ULFs are the active elements of IF growth, undergoing longitudinal end-to-end annealing with one another and with growing filaments. Originally, we have employed quantitative time-lapse atomic force and electron microscopy to analyze the kinetics of vimentin-filament assembly starting from a few seconds to several hours. To obtain detailed quantitative insight into the productive reactions that drive ULF formation, we now introduce a "stopped-flow" approach in combination with static light-scattering measurements. Thereby, we determine the basic rate constants for lateral assembly of tetramers to ULFs. Processing of the recorded data by a global fitting procedure enables us to describe the hierarchical steps of IF formation. Specifically, we propose that tetramers are consumed within milliseconds to yield octamers that are obligatory intermediates toward ULF formation. Although the interaction of tetramers is diffusion controlled, it is strongly driven by their geometry to mediate effective subunit targeting. Importantly, our model conclusively reflects the previously described occurrence of polymorphic ULF and mature filaments in terms of their number of tetramers per cross section.

Interdependent action of KH domain proteins Krr1 and Dim2 drive the 40S platform assembly.

Ribosome biogenesis begins in the nucleolus with the formation of 90S pre-ribosomes, from which pre-40S and pre-60S particles arise that subsequently follow separate maturation pathways. Here, we show how structurally related assembly factors, the KH domain proteins Krr1 and Dim2, participate in ribosome assembly. Initially, Dim2 (Pno1) orchestrates an early step in small subunit biogenesis through its binding to a distinct region of the 90S pre-ribosome. This involves Utp1 of the UTP-B module, and Utp14, an activator of the DEAH-box helicase Dhr1 that catalyzes the removal of U3 snoRNP from the 90S. Following this dismantling reaction, the pre-40S subunit emerges, but Dim2 relocates to the pre-40S platform domain, previously occupied in the 90S by the other KH factor Krr1 through its interaction with Rps14 and the UTP-C module. Our findings show how the structurally related Krr1 and Dim2 can control stepwise ribosome assembly during the 90S-to-pre-40S subunit transition.

A Puzzle of Life: Crafting Ribosomal Subunits.

The biogenesis of eukaryotic ribosomes is a complicated process during which the transcription, modification, folding, and processing of the rRNA is coupled with the ordered assembly of ∼80 ribosomal proteins (r-proteins). Ribosome synthesis is catalyzed and coordinated by more than 200 biogenesis factors as the preribosomal subunits acquire maturity on their path from the nucleolus to the cytoplasm. Several biogenesis factors also interconnect the progression of ribosome assembly with quality control of important domains, ensuring that only functional subunits engage in translation. With the recent visualization of several assembly intermediates by cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM), a structural view of ribosome assembly begins to emerge. In this review we integrate these first structural insights into an updated overview of the consecutive ribosome assembly steps.

Interaction network of the ribosome assembly machinery from a eukaryotic thermophile.

Ribosome biogenesis in eukaryotic cells is a highly dynamic and complex process innately linked to cell proliferation. The assembly of ribosomes is driven by a myriad of biogenesis factors that shape pre-ribosomal particles by processing and folding the ribosomal RNA and incorporating ribosomal proteins. Biochemical approaches allowed the isolation and characterization of pre-ribosomal particles from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which lead to a spatiotemporal map of biogenesis intermediates along the path from the nucleolus to the cytoplasm. Here, we cloned almost the entire set (∼180) of ribosome biogenesis factors from the thermophilic fungus Chaetomium thermophilum in order to perform an in-depth analysis of their protein-protein interaction network as well as exploring the suitability of these thermostable proteins for structural studies. First, we performed a systematic screen, testing about 80 factors for crystallization and structure determination. Next, we performed a yeast 2-hybrid analysis and tested about 32,000 binary combinations, which identified more than 1000 protein-protein contacts between the thermophilic ribosome assembly factors. To exemplary verify several of these interactions, we performed biochemical reconstitution with the focus on the interaction network between 90S pre-ribosome factors forming the ctUTP-A and ctUTP-B modules, and the Brix-domain containing assembly factors of the pre-60S subunit. Our work provides a rich resource for biochemical reconstitution and structural analyses of the conserved ribosome assembly machinery from a eukaryotic thermophile.

Architecture of the Rix1-Rea1 checkpoint machinery during pre-60S-ribosome remodeling.

Ribosome synthesis is catalyzed by ∼200 assembly factors, which facilitate efficient production of mature ribosomes. Here, we determined the cryo-EM structure of a Saccharomyces cerevisiae nucleoplasmic pre-60S particle containing the dynein-related 550-kDa Rea1 AAA(+) ATPase and the Rix1 subcomplex. This particle differs from its preceding state, the early Arx1 particle, by two massive structural rearrangements: an ∼180° rotation of the 5S ribonucleoprotein complex and the central protuberance (CP) rRNA helices, and the removal of the 'foot' structure from the 3' end of the 5.8S rRNA. Progression from the Arx1 to the Rix1 particle was blocked by mutational perturbation of the Rix1-Rea1 interaction but not by a dominant-lethal Rea1 AAA(+) ATPase-ring mutant. After remodeling, the Rix1 subcomplex and Rea1 become suitably positioned to sense correct structural maturation of the CP, which allows unidirectional progression toward mature ribosomes.

Direct and high throughput (HT) interactions on the ribosomal surface by iRIA.

Ribosomes function as platforms for binding of other molecules, but technologies for studying this process are lacking. Therefore we developed iRIA (in vitro Ribosomes Interaction Assay). In approach I, Artemia salina ribosomes spotted on solid phase are used for binding picomoles of analytes; in approach II, cellular extracts allow the measurement of ribosome activity in different conditions. We apply the method to analyze several features of eIF6 binding to 60S subunits. By approach I, we show that the off-rate of eIF6 from preribosomes is slower than from mature ribosomes and that its binding to mature 60S occurs in the nM affinity range. By approach II we show that eIF6 binding sites on 60S are increased with mild eIF6 depletion and decreased in cells that are devoid of SBDS, a ribosomal factor necessary for 60S maturation and involved in Swachman Diamond syndrome. We show binding conditions to immobilized ribosomes adaptable to HT and quantify free ribosomes in cell extracts. In conclusion, we suggest that iRIA will greatly facilitate the study of interactions on the ribosomal surface.

The Exosome Is Recruited to RNA Substrates through Specific Adaptor Proteins.

The exosome regulates the processing, degradation, and surveillance of a plethora of RNA species. However, little is known about how the exosome recognizes and is recruited to its diverse substrates. We report the identification of adaptor proteins that recruit the exosome-associated helicase, Mtr4, to unique RNA substrates. Nop53, the yeast homolog of the tumor suppressor PICT1, targets Mtr4 to pre-ribosomal particles for exosome-mediated processing, while a second adaptor Utp18 recruits Mtr4 to cleaved rRNA fragments destined for degradation by the exosome. Both Nop53 and Utp18 contain the same consensus motif, through which they dock to the "arch" domain of Mtr4 and target it to specific substrates. These findings show that the exosome employs a general mechanism of recruitment to defined substrates and that this process is regulated through adaptor proteins.

Structural basis for assembly and function of the Nup82 complex in the nuclear pore scaffold.

Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) are huge assemblies formed from ∼30 different nucleoporins, typically organized in subcomplexes. One module, the conserved Nup82 complex at the cytoplasmic face of NPCs, is crucial to terminate mRNA export. To gain insight into the structure, assembly, and function of the cytoplasmic pore filaments, we reconstituted in yeast the Nup82-Nup159-Nsp1-Dyn2 complex, which was suitable for biochemical, biophysical, and electron microscopy analyses. Our integrative approach revealed that the yeast Nup82 complex forms an unusual asymmetric structure with a dimeric array of subunits. Based on all these data, we developed a three-dimensional structural model of the Nup82 complex that depicts how this module might be anchored to the NPC scaffold and concomitantly can interact with the soluble nucleocytoplasmic transport machinery.