Humanized MISTRG as a preclinical in vivo model to study human neutrophil-mediated immune processes.

Introduction: MISTRG mice have been genetically modified to allow development of a human myeloid compartment from engrafted human CD34+ haemopoietic stem cells, making them particularly suited to study the human innate immune system in vivo. Here, we characterized the human neutrophil population in these mice to establish a model that can be used to study the biology and contribution in immune processes of these cells in vivo. Methods and results: We could isolate human bone marrow neutrophils from humanized MISTRG mice and confirmed that all neutrophil maturation stages from promyelocytes (CD11b-CD16-) to end-stage segmented cells (CD11b+CD16+) were present. We documented that these cells possessed normal functional properties, including degranulation, reactive oxygen species production, adhesion, and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity towards antibody-opsonized tumor cells ex vivo. The acquisition of functional capacities positively correlated with the maturation state of the cell. We found that human neutrophils were retained in the bone marrow of humanized MISTRG mice during steady state. However, the mature segmented CD11b+CD16+ human neutrophils were released from the bone marrow in response to two well-established neutrophil-mobilizing agents (i.e., G-CSF and/or CXCR4 antagonist Plerixafor). Moreover, the neutrophil population in the humanized MISTRG mice actively reacted to thioglycolate-induced peritonitis and could infiltrate implanted human tumors, as shown by flow cytometry and fluorescent microscopy. Discussion: These results show that functional human neutrophils are generated and can be studied in vivo using the humanized MISTRG mice, providing a model to study the various functions of neutrophils in inflammation and in tumors.

Preclinical characterization and clinical translation of pharmacodynamic markers for MK-5890: a human CD27 activating antibody for cancer immunotherapy.

BACKGROUND: Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have radically changed cancer therapy, but most patients with cancer are unresponsive or relapse after treatment. MK-5890 is a CD27 agonist antibody intended to complement ICI therapy. CD27 is a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily that plays a critical role in promoting responses of T cells, B cells and NK cells. METHODS: Anti-CD27 antibodies were generated and selected for agonist activity using NF-кB luciferase reporter assays. Antibodies were humanized and characterized for agonism using in vitro T-cell proliferation assays. The epitope recognized on CD27 by MK-5890 was established by X-ray crystallography. Anti-tumor activity was evaluated in a human CD27 knock-in mouse. Preclinical safety was tested in rhesus monkeys. Pharmacodynamic properties were examined in mouse, rhesus monkeys and a phase 1 dose escalation clinical study in patients with cancer. RESULTS: Humanized anti-CD27 antibody MK-5890 (hIgG1) was shown to bind human CD27 on the cell surface with sub-nanomolar potency and to partially block binding to its ligand, CD70. Crystallization studies revealed that MK-5890 binds to a unique epitope in the cysteine-rich domain 1 (CRD1). MK-5890 activated CD27 expressed on 293T NF-κB luciferase reporter cells and, conditional on CD3 stimulation, in purified CD8+ T cells without the requirement of crosslinking. Functional Fc-receptor interaction was required to activate CD8+ T cells in an ex vivo tumor explant system and to induce antitumor efficacy in syngeneic murine subcutaneous tumor models. MK-5890 had monotherapy efficacy in these models and enhanced efficacy of PD-1 blockade. MK-5890 reduced in an isotype-dependent and dose-dependent manner circulating, but not tumor-infiltrating T-cell numbers in these mouse models. In rhesus monkey and human patients, reduction in circulating T cells was transient and less pronounced than in mouse. MK-5890 induced transient elevation of chemokines MCP-1, MIP-1α, and MIP-1ß in the serum of mice, rhesus monkeys and patients with cancer. MK-5890 was well tolerated in rhesus monkeys and systemic exposure to MK-5890 was associated with CD27 occupancy at all doses. CONCLUSIONS: MK-5890 is a novel CD27 agonistic antibody with the potential to complement the activity of PD-1 checkpoint inhibition in cancer immunotherapy and is currently undergoing clinical evaluation.

CD4+ T cell help creates memory CD8+ T cells with innate and help-independent recall capacities.

CD4+ T cell help is required for the generation of CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) memory. Here, we use genome-wide analyses to show how CD4+ T cell help delivered during priming promotes memory differentiation of CTLs. Help signals enhance IL-15-dependent maintenance of central memory T (TCM) cells. More importantly, help signals regulate the size and function of the effector memory T (TEM) cell pool. Helped TEM cells produce Granzyme B and IFNγ upon antigen-independent, innate-like recall by IL-12 and IL-18. In addition, helped memory CTLs express the effector program characteristic of helped primary CTLs upon recall with MHC class I-restricted antigens, likely due to epigenetic imprinting and sustained mRNA expression of effector genes. Our data thus indicate that during priming, CD4+ T cell help optimizes CTL memory by creating TEM cells with innate and help-independent antigen-specific recall capacities.

CD4+ T cell help in cancer immunology and immunotherapy.

Cancer immunotherapy aims to promote the activity of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) within a tumour, assist the priming of tumour-specific CTLs in lymphoid organs and establish efficient and durable antitumour immunity. During priming, help signals are relayed from CD4+ T cells to CD8+ T cells by specific dendritic cells to optimize the magnitude and quality of the CTL response. In this Review, we highlight the cellular dynamics and membrane receptors that mediate CD4+ T cell help and the molecular mechanisms of the enhanced antitumour activity of CTLs. We outline how deficient CD4+ T cell help reduces the response of CTLs and how maximizing CD4+ T cell help can improve outcomes in cancer immunotherapy strategies.

Subcellular Localization of Antigen in Keratinocytes Dictates Delivery of CD4+ T-cell Help for the CTL Response upon Therapeutic DNA Vaccination into the Skin.

In a mouse model of therapeutic DNA vaccination, we studied how the subcellular localization of vaccine protein impacts antigen delivery to professional antigen-presenting cells and efficiency of CTL priming. Cytosolic, membrane-bound, nuclear, and secretory versions of ZsGreen fluorescent protein, conjugated to MHC class I and II ovalbumin (OVA) epitopes, were expressed in keratinocytes by DNA vaccination into the skin. ZsGreen-OVA versions reached B cells in the skin-draining lymph node (dLN) that proved irrelevant for CTL priming. ZsGreen-OVA versions were also actively transported to the dLN by dendritic cells (DC). In the dLN, vaccine proteins localized to classical (c)DCs of the migratory XCR1+ and XCR- subtypes, and-to a lesser extent-to LN-resident cDCs. Secretory ZsGreen-OVA induced the best antitumor CTL response, even though its delivery to cDCs in the dLN was significantly less efficient than for other vaccine proteins. Secretory ZsGreen-OVA protein proved superior in CTL priming, because it led to in vivo engagement of antigen-loaded XCR1+, but not XCR1-, cDCs. Secretory ZsGreen-OVA also maximally solicited CD4+ T-cell help. The suboptimal CTL response to the other ZsGreen-OVA versions was improved by engaging costimulatory receptor CD27, which mimics CD4+ T-cell help. Thus, in therapeutic DNA vaccination into the skin, mere inclusion of helper epitopes does not ensure delivery of CD4+ T-cell help for the CTL response. Targeting of the vaccine protein to the secretory route of keratinocytes is required to engage XCR1+ cDC and CD4+ T-cell help and thus to promote CTL priming. Cancer Immunol Res; 6(7); 835-47. ©2018 AACR.

CD4+ T Cell Help Confers a Cytotoxic T Cell Effector Program Including Coinhibitory Receptor Downregulation and Increased Tissue Invasiveness.

CD4+ T cells optimize the cytotoxic T cell (CTL) response in magnitude and quality, by unknown molecular mechanisms. We here present the transcriptomic changes in CTLs resulting from CD4+ T cell help after anti-cancer vaccination or virus infection. The gene expression signatures revealed that CD4+ T cell help during priming optimized CTLs in expression of cytotoxic effector molecules and many other functions that ensured efficacy of CTLs throughout their life cycle. Key features included downregulation of PD-1 and other coinhibitory receptors that impede CTL activity, and increased motility and migration capacities. "Helped" CTLs acquired chemokine receptors that helped them reach their tumor target tissue and metalloprotease activity that enabled them to invade into tumor tissue. A very large part of the "help" program was instilled in CD8+ T cells via CD27 costimulation. The help program thus enhances specific CTL effector functions in response to vaccination or a virus infection.

CD27 Agonism Plus PD-1 Blockade Recapitulates CD4+ T-cell Help in Therapeutic Anticancer Vaccination.

While showing promise, vaccination strategies to treat cancer require further optimization. Likely barriers to efficacy involve cancer-associated immunosuppression and peripheral tolerance, which limit the generation of effective vaccine-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). Because CD4(+) T cells improve CTL responsiveness, next-generation vaccines include helper epitopes. Here, we demonstrate in mice how CD4(+) T-cell help optimizes the CTL response to a clinically relevant DNA vaccine engineered to combat human papillomavirus-expressing tumors. Inclusion of tumor-unrelated helper epitopes greatly increased CTL priming, effector, and memory T-cell programming. CD4(+) T-cell help optimized the CTL response in all these aspects via CD27/CD70 costimulation. Notably, administration of an agonistic CD27 antibody could largely replace helper epitopes in promoting primary and memory CTL responses, acting directly on CD8(+) T cells. CD27 agonism improved efficacy of the vaccine without helper epitopes, more so than combined PD-1 and CTLA-4 blockade. Combining CD27 agonism with CTLA-4 blockade improved vaccine-induced CTL priming and tumor infiltration, but only combination with PD-1 blockade was effective at eradicating tumors, thereby fully recapitulating the effect of CD4(+) T-cell help on vaccine efficacy. PD-1 blockade alone did not affect CTL priming or tumor infiltration, so these results implied that it cooperated with CD4(+) T-cell help by alleviating immune suppression against CTL in the tumor. Helper epitope inclusion or CD27 agonism did not stimulate regulatory T cells, and vaccine efficacy was also improved by CD27 agonism in the presence of CD4(+) T-cell help. Our findings provide a preclinical rationale to apply CD27 agonist antibodies, either alone or combined with PD-1 blockade, to improve the therapeutic efficacy of cancer vaccines and immunotherapy generally. Cancer Res; 76(10); 2921-31. ©2016 AACR.

CD8+ T cells produce the chemokine CXCL10 in response to CD27/CD70 costimulation to promote generation of the CD8+ effector T cell pool.

Various cell types can produce the chemokine CXCL10 in response to IFN-γ stimulation. CXCL10 is generally viewed as a proinflammatory chemokine that promotes recruitment of CD8÷ and Th1-type CD4÷ effector T cells to infected or inflamed nonlymphoid tissues. We show that CXCL10 plays a role during CD8÷ T cell priming in the mouse. Genome-wide expression profiling revealed the Cxcl10 gene as a target of CD27/CD70 costimulation in newly activated CD8÷ T cells. CD27/CD70 costimulation is known to promote activated T cell survival, but CXCL10 did not affect survival or proliferation of primed CD8÷ T cells in vitro. Accordingly, CXCL10 could not fully rescue CD27 deficiency in mice infected with influenza virus. Rather, CXCL10 acted as chemoattractant for other activated CD8⁺ T cells. It signaled downstream of CD27 in a paracrine fashion to promote generation of the CD8÷ effector T cell pool in the Ag-draining lymph nodes. Consistently, CD8÷ T cells required expression of the CXCL10 receptor CXCR3 for their clonal expansion in a CD27/CD70-dependent peptide-immunization model. Our findings indicate that CXCL10, produced by primed CD8÷ T cells in response to CD27/CD70 costimulation, signals to other primed CD8⁺ T cells in the lymph node microenvironment to facilitate their participation in the CD8÷ effector T cell pool.

Osteoclast precursors in murine bone marrow express CD27 and are impeded in osteoclast development by CD70 on activated immune cells.

Osteoclasts (OCs) are bone-resorbing cells that are formed from hematopoietic precursors. OCs ordinarily maintain bone homeostasis, but they can also cause major pathology in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Under homeostatic conditions, receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B (RANK) ligand on osteoblasts drives OC differentiation by interaction with its receptor RANK on OC precursors. During chronic immune activation, RANK ligand on activated immune cells likewise drives pathogenic OC differentiation. We here report that the related TNF family member CD70 and its receptor CD27 can also mediate cross-talk between immune cells and OC precursors. We identified CD27 on a rare population (0.3%) of B220(-)c-Kit(+)CD115(+)CD11b(low) cells in the mouse bone marrow (BM) that are highly enriched for osteoclastogenic potential. We dissected this population into CD27(high) common precursors of OC, dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages and CD27(low/neg) downstream precursors that could differentiate into OC and macrophages, but not DC. In a recombinant mouse model of chronic immune activation, sustained CD27/CD70 interactions caused an accumulation of OC precursors and a reduction in OC activity. These events were due to a CD27/CD70-dependent inhibition of OC differentiation from the OC precursors by BM-infiltrating, CD70(+)-activated immune cells. DC numbers in BM and spleen were increased, suggesting a skewing of the OC precursors toward DC differentiation. The impediment in OC differentiation culminated in a high trabecular bone mass pathology. Mice additionally presented anemia, leukopenia, and splenomegaly. Thus, under conditions of constitutive CD70 expression reflecting chronic immune activation, the CD27/CD70 system inhibits OC differentiation and favors DC differentiation.

Mutations in LRRC50 predispose zebrafish and humans to seminomas.

Seminoma is a subclass of human testicular germ cell tumors (TGCT), the most frequently observed cancer in young men with a rising incidence. Here we describe the identification of a novel gene predisposing specifically to seminoma formation in a vertebrate model organism. Zebrafish carrying a heterozygous nonsense mutation in Leucine-Rich Repeat Containing protein 50 (lrrc50 also called dnaaf1), associated previously with ciliary function, are found to be highly susceptible to the formation of seminomas. Genotyping of these zebrafish tumors shows loss of heterozygosity (LOH) of the wild-type lrrc50 allele in 44.4% of tumor samples, correlating with tumor progression. In humans we identified heterozygous germline LRRC50 mutations in two different pedigrees with a family history of seminomas, resulting in a nonsense Arg488* change and a missense Thr590Met change, which show reduced expression of the wild-type allele in seminomas. Zebrafish in vivo complementation studies indicate the Thr590Met to be a loss-of-function mutation. Moreover, we show that a pathogenic Gln307Glu change is significantly enriched in individuals with seminoma tumors (13% of our cohort). Together, our study introduces an animal model for seminoma and suggests LRRC50 to be a novel tumor suppressor implicated in human seminoma pathogenesis.

Epithelial and dendritic cells in the thymic medulla promote CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cell development via the CD27-CD70 pathway.

CD4(+)Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Treg cells) are largely autoreactive yet escape clonal deletion in the thymus. We demonstrate here that CD27-CD70 co-stimulation in the thymus rescues developing Treg cells from apoptosis and thereby promotes Treg cell generation. Genetic ablation of CD27 or its ligand CD70 reduced Treg cell numbers in the thymus and peripheral lymphoid organs, whereas it did not alter conventional CD4(+)Foxp3(-) T cell numbers. The CD27-CD70 pathway was not required for pre-Treg cell generation, Foxp3 induction, or mature Treg cell function. Rather, CD27 signaling enhanced positive selection of Treg cells within the thymus in a cell-intrinsic manner. CD27 signals promoted the survival of thymic Treg cells by inhibiting the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. CD70 was expressed on Aire(-) and Aire(+) medullary thymic epithelial cells (mTECs) and on dendritic cells (DCs) in the thymic medulla. CD70 on both mTECs and DCs contributed to Treg cell development as shown in BM chimera experiments with CD70-deficient mice. In vitro experiments indicated that CD70 on the CD8α(+) subset of thymic DCs promoted Treg cell development. Our data suggest that mTECs and DCs form dedicated niches in the thymic medulla, in which CD27-CD70 co-stimulation rescues developing Treg cells from apoptosis, subsequent to Foxp3 induction by TCR and CD28 signals.