Symptomatic Unilateral Carotid Artery Disease: An Uncommon but Reversible Cause of Corticobasal Syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: Symptomatic carotid artery disease (CAD) represents an uncommon but treatable cause of corticobasal syndrome. CASE REPORT: We present the clinical details and successful management of a previously healthy 77-year-old patient who presented with 1-year cognitive dysfunction, alien limb syndrome, limb kinetic apraxia, and ipsilateral cortical sensory deficit, fulfilling the criteria of the diagnosis of probable corticobasal syndrome. Imaging modalities, including magnetic resonance imaging and time-of-flight magnetic resonance angiography, revealed acute external borderzone infarcts of the right hemisphere due to symptomatic CAD causing near occlusion of the vessel. The patient underwent a right carotid endarterectomy, leading to a marked improvement in mobility and neuropsychological evaluation. CONCLUSION: This case highlights the importance of swift diagnosis of symptomatic CAD in patients with corticobasal syndrome. Moreover, it emphasizes the efficacy of carotid endarterectomy in achieving symptom improvement in such cases.

Challenges in diagnosis and management of cerebral venous thrombosis as underlying cause of lobar intracerebral hemorrhage.

OBJECTIVES: Cerebral venous thrombosis is an uncommon, yet life-threatening condition, affecting mainly young and middle-aged individuals. Moreover, it represents an underrecognised etiology of lobar intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). The clinical course of CVT is variable in the first days after diagnosis and medical complications including pulmonary embolism (PE) may result in early neurological deterioration and death if left untreated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Case report. RESULTS: We describe a 46-year-old man with acute left hemiparesis and dysarthria in the context of lobar ICH due to underlying CVT of Trolard vein. Diagnosis was delayed because of misinterpretation of the initial neuroimaging study. Subsequently, the patient rapidly deteriorated and developed submassive PE and left iliofemoral venous thrombosis in the setting of previously undiagnosed hereditary thrombophilia (heterozygous prothrombin gene mutation G2021A). Emergent aspiration thrombectomy was performed resulting in the successful management of PE. A follow-up MRI study confirmed the thrombosed Trolard vein, thus establishing the CVT diagnosis. Anticoagulation treatment was immediately escalated to enoxaparine therapeutic dose resulting in clinical improvement of neurological deficits. CONCLUSIONS: Delayed diagnosis of cerebral venous thrombosis with underlying causes of lobar ICH may result in dire complications. Swift initiation of anticoagulants is paramount even in patients with lobar intracerebral hemorrhage as the initial manifestation of cerebral venous thrombosis.

Non-Pharmacological Interventions on Pain in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting upper and lower motor neurons. Some ALS patients exhibit concomitant nonmotor signs; thus, ALS is considered a multisystemic disorder. Pain is an important nonmotor symptom. Observational and case-control studies report high frequency of pain in ALS patients and it has been correlated with depression and quality of life. There are no specific scales for the assessment of pain and no randomized controlled trials (RCTs) regarding the drug management of pain in ALS. AIM: To systematically review the evidence for the nonpharmacological interventions (NPIs) in relieving pain in ALS, on March 2024, we searched the following databases: Pubmed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane. We also checked the bibliographies of trials identified to include further published or unpublished trials. MAIN RESULTS: A total of 1003 records were identified. Finally, five RCTs including 131 patients (64 in the intervention group and 67 in the control group) were included for meta-analysis. The interventions of the included RCTs consisted of muscle exercise, combined aerobics-strength intervention, and osteopathic manual treatment. The meta-analysis did not find a statistically significant difference in favor of NPIs for alleviating pain in ALS patients. CONCLUSIONS: ALS has a fulminant course and irreversibly leads to death. Pain in ALS patients, although a common nonmotor symptom, is often unrecognized and undertreated, and this is underlined by the lack of any RCTs on drug therapy for pain. Albeit NPIs are considered safe, as adverse effects are rarely reported, this systematic review did not provide sufficient evidence for a beneficial effect on pain. The scarceness of relevant literature highlights the need for future studies, with larger samples, more homogeneous in terms of interventions and population characteristics (stage of disease), and better choice of measurement scales to further investigate the efficacy, if any, of various pain interventions in ALS patients.

Carotid-cavernous fistula: A potential treatable cause of bilateral abducens palsy and conjunctival hyperemia.

OBJECTIVE: Carotid cavernous fistulas (CCFs) represent uncommon and anomalous communications between the carotid artery and the cavernous sinus. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Case report RESULTS: We present the clinical details and successful management of a previously healthy 44-year-old patient who presented with one-month worsening headache, bilateral abducens palsy and conjunctival injection. Imaging modalities including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with contrast and digital subtraction angiography (DSA) facilitated the diagnosis of CCF. The patient underwent endovascular coiling of the CCF, leading to neurological recovery and symptom remission. CONCLUSION: This case highlights the importance of promptly CCF diagnosis in patients with multiple cranial nerve palsies and conjunctival hyperemia. Moreover, it emphasizes the efficacy of endovascular coiling in achieving symptom remission.

Performance of Different Risk Scores for the Detection of Atrial Fibrillation Among Patients With Cryptogenic Stroke.

BACKGROUND: Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a frequent underlying cause of cryptogenic stroke (CS) and its detection can be increased using implantable cardiac monitoring (ICM). We sought to evaluate different risk scores and assess their diagnostic ability in identifying patients with CS with underlying AF on ICM. METHODS: Patients with CS, being admitted to a single tertiary stroke center between 2017 and 2022 and receiving ICM, were prospectively evaluated. The CHA2DS2-VASc, HAVOC, Brown ESUS-AF, and C2HEST scores were calculated at baseline. The primary outcome of interest was the detection of AF, which was defined as at least 1 AF episode on ICM lasting for 2 consecutive minutes or more. The diagnostic accuracy measures and the net reclassification improvement were calculated for the 4 risk scores. Stroke recurrence was evaluated as a secondary outcome. RESULTS: A total of 250 patients with CS were included, and AF was detected by ICM in 20.4% (n=51) during a median monitoring period of 16 months. Patients with CS with AF detection were older compared with the rest (P=0.045). The median HAVOC, Brown ESUS-AF, and C2HEST scores were higher among the patients with AF compared with the patients without AF (all P<0.05), while the median CHA2DS2-VASc score was similar between the 2 groups. The corresponding C statistics for CHA2DS2-VASc, HAVOC, Brown ESUS-AF, and C2HEST for AF prediction were 0.576 (95% CI, 0.482-0.670), 0.612 (95% CI, 0.523-0.700), 0.666 (95% CI, 0.587-0.746), and 0.770 (95% CI, 0.699-0.839). The C2HEST score presented the highest diagnostic performance based on C statistics (P<0.05 after correction for multiple comparisons) and provided significant improvement in net reclassification for AF detection (>70%) compared with the other risk scores. Finally, stroke recurrence was documented in 5.6% of the study population, with no difference regarding the 4 risk scores between patients with and without recurrent stroke. CONCLUSIONS: The C2HEST score was superior to the CHA2DS2-VASc, HAVOC, and Brown ESUS-AF scores for discriminating patients with CS with underlying AF using ICM.

Transorbital sonography in idiopathic intracranial hypertension: Single-center study, systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Transorbital sonography (TOS) provides a noninvasive tool to detect intracranial pressure by assessing optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) and optic disc elevation (ODE). The utility of TOS in the diagnosis of idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) has been increasingly recognized. METHODS: A single-center case-control study sought to compare TOS-acquired ONSD and ODE among IIH-cases versus patients with other neurological diseases (controls). Furthermore, a systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to present pooled mean differences and diagnostic measures of ONSD and ODE between IIH-cases and controls. RESULTS: In the single-center study, consisting of 31 IIH-cases and 34 sex- and age-matched controls, ONSD values were higher among IIH-cases than controls (p<.001), while ODE was more prevalent in cases (65% vs. 15%; p<.001). The receiver-operating characteristic (ROC)-curve analysis revealed that the optimal cutoff value of ONSD for predicting IIH was 5.15 mm, with an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.914 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.861-0.967) and sensitivity and specificity values of 85% and 90%, respectively. In a meta-analysis of 14 included studies with 415 IIH-cases, ONSD and ODE values were higher in IIH-cases than controls (mean difference in ONSD 1.20 mm; 95% CI: 0.96-1.44 mm and in ODE 0.3 mm; 95% CI: 0.33-0.67 mm). With regard to ONSD, pooled sensitivity, specificity, and diagnostic odds ratio were calculated at 85.5% (95% CI: 77.9-90.8%), 90.7% (95% CI: 84.6-94.5%), and 57.394 (95% CI: 24.597-133.924), respectively. The AUC in summary ROC-curve analysis was 0.878 (95% CI: 0.858-0.899) with an optimal cutoff point of 5.0 mm. CONCLUSIONS: TOS has a high diagnostic utility for the noninvasive diagnosis of IIH and may deserve wider implementation in everyday clinical practice.

Icatibant averting mechanical ventilation in acute ischemic stroke patient with alteplase-induced orolingual angioedema.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Orolingual angioedema (OA) represents a rare but life-threatening complication among patients with acute ischemic stroke treated with intravenous thrombolysis with alteplase. Novel agents, including icatibant, are recommended in resistant patients with alteplase-induced OA who have failed to respond to first-line therapies including corticosteroids, antihistamines, and/or adrenaline. METHODS: We present a patient with alteplase-induced OA who showed substantial clinical improvement following the administration of icatibant. RESULTS: We describe a 71-year-old woman with known arterial hypertension under treatment with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, who presented with acute ischemic stroke in the territory of the right middle cerebral artery and received intravenous alteplase. During intravenous thrombolysis, the case was complicated with OA without any response to standard anaphylactic treatment including corticosteroids, dimetindene, and adrenaline. Thirty minutes after symptom onset, icatibant, a synthetic selective bradykinin B2-receptor antagonist, was administered subcutaneously. Substantial symptomatic resolution was observed only following the icatibant administration. CONCLUSIONS: This case highlights the effectiveness of icatibant in the acute management of alteplase-induced OA. In particular, icatibant administration, following first-line therapies including corticosteroids, antihistamines, and/or adrenaline, may avert tracheostomy and intubation in resistant and refractory cases with OA following intravenous thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke.

Clinical Characteristics, Neuroimaging Markers, and Outcomes in Patients with Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy: A Prospective Cohort Study.

Background and purpose: Sporadic cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is a small vessel disease, resulting from progressive amyloid-ß deposition in the media/adventitia of cortical and leptomeningeal arterioles. We sought to assess the prevalence of baseline characteristics, clinical and radiological findings, as well as outcomes among patients with CAA, in the largest study to date conducted in Greece. Methods: Sixty-eight patients fulfilling the Boston Criteria v1.5 for probable/possible CAA were enrolled and followed for at least twelve months. Magnetic Resonance Imaging was used to assess specific neuroimaging markers. Data regarding cerebrospinal fluid biomarker profile and Apolipoprotein-E genotype were collected. Multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to identify predictors of clinical phenotypes. Cox-proportional hazard regression models were used to calculate associations with the risk of recurrent intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Results: Focal neurological deficits (75%), cognitive decline (57%), and transient focal neurological episodes (TFNEs; 21%) were the most common clinical manifestations. Hemorrhagic lesions, including lobar cerebral microbleeds (CMBs; 93%), cortical superficial siderosis (cSS; 48%), and lobar ICH (43%) were the most prevalent neuroimaging findings. cSS was independently associated with the likelihood of TFNEs at presentation (OR: 4.504, 95%CI:1.258-19.088), while multiple (>10) lobar CMBs were independently associated with cognitive decline at presentation (OR:5.418, 95%CI:1.316-28.497). cSS emerged as the only risk factor of recurrent ICH (HR:4.238, 95%CI:1.509-11.900) during a median follow-up of 20 months. Conclusions: cSS was independently associated with TFNEs at presentation and ICH recurrence at follow-up, while a higher burden of lobar CMBs with cognitive decline at baseline. These findings highlight the prognostic value of neuroimaging markers, which may influence clinical decision-making.

Multiple cerebral microinfarcts: an uncommon presentation of Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy-related inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy-related inflammation (CAA-ri) is a distinct but rare subset of CAA. The greater availability of high resolution Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has currently allowed the increasing recognition and diagnosis of this entity, without the risk of a brain biopsy. However, in rare cases with typical clinical characteristics but uncommon neuroimaging findings at presentation, the brain-biopsy is required for an early and reliable diagnosis. CASE DESCRIPTION: A 71-year-old man with arterial hypertension presented due to 1-week history of headache, vomiting, disorientation and impaired consciousness. Brain MRI revealed multiple acute cortical/subcortical microinfarcts, scarce microbleeds, extensive right parietooccipital and left frontotemporal leptomeningeal enhancement. After an extensive diagnostic work-up, excluding infectious, neoplastic and autoimmune etiologies, the patient underwent brain-biopsy. Histology disclosed amyloid deposition in an arteriolar wall and the patient fulfilled diagnostic criteria for probable CAA-ri with supporting pathology. He received intravenous methylprednisolone, followed by oral tapering with steroids showing clinical and radiological improvement with complete resolution of gadolinium enhancement. Follow-up MRI revealed an increase of cerebral microbleeds and the patient fulfilled CAA-ri neuroimaging criteria. CONCLUSIONS: This case highlights the importance of continuous vigilance from clinical neurologists to detect CAA-ri diagnosis and the diagnostic value of brain-biopsy in CAA-ri patients with atypical neuroimaging presentation, such as acute microinfarcts. The early diagnosis and the prompt treatment initiation can improve the prognosis and the evolution of this rare disorder.

Impaired cerebral autoregulation in Fabry disease: A case-control study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Cerebral small vessel disease is a common manifestation among patients with Fabry disease (FD). As a biomarker of cerebral small vessel disease, the prevalence of impaired cerebral autoregulation as assessed by transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography was evaluated in FD patients and healthy controls. METHODS: TCD was performed to assess pulsatility index (PI) and vasomotor reactivity expressed by breath-holding index (BHI) for the middle cerebral arteries of included FD patients and healthy controls. Prevalence of increased PI (>1.2) and decreased BHI (<0.69) and ultrasound indices of cerebral autoregulation were compared in FD patients and controls. The potential association of ultrasound indices of impaired cerebral autoregulation with white matter lesions and leukoencephalopathy on brain MRI in FD patients was also evaluated. RESULTS: Demographics and vascular risk factors were similar in 23 FD patients (43% women, mean age: 51 ± 13 years) and 46 healthy controls (43% women, mean age: 51 ± 13 years). The prevalence of increased PI (39%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 20%-61%), decreased BHI (39%; 95% CI: 20%-61%), and the combination of increased PI and/or decreased BHI (61%; 95% CI: 39%-80%) was significantly (p < .001) higher in FD patients compared to healthy controls (2% [95% CI: 0.1%-12%], 2% [95% CI: 0.1%-12%], and 4% [95% CI: 0.1%-15%], respectively). However, indices of abnormal cerebral autoregulation were not associated independently with white matter hyperintensities and presented a low-to-moderate predictive ability for the discrimination of FD patients with and without white matter hyperintensities. CONCLUSIONS: Impaired cerebral autoregulation as assessed by TCD appears to be highly more prevalent among FD patients compared to healthy controls.

Image analysis can reliably quantify median nerve echogenicity and texture changes in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To study the ability of image analysis measures to quantify echotexture changes of median nerve in order to provide a complementary diagnostic tool in CTS. METHODS: Image analysis measures (gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM), brightness, hypoechoic area percentage using max entropy and mean threshold) were calculated in normalized images of 39 (19 younger and 20 older than 65y) healthy controls and 95 CTS patients (37 younger and 58 older than 65y). RESULTS: Image analysis measures were equivalent or superior (older patients) to subjective visual analysis. In younger patients, GLCM measures showed equivalent diagnostic accuracy with cross sectional area (CSA) (Area Under Curve (AUC for inverse different moment = 0.97). In older patients all image analysis measures showed similar diagnostic accuracy to CSA (AUC for brightness = 0.88). Moreover, they had abnormal values in many older patients with normal CSA values. CONCLUSIONS: Image analysis reliably quantifies median nerve echotexture alterations in CTS and offers similar diagnostic accuracy to CSA measurement. SIGNIFICANCE: Image analysis may offer added value to existing measures in the evaluation of CTS, especially in older patients. Its clinical implementation would require incorporation of mathematically simple software code for online nerve image analysis in ultrasound machines.

Churg-Strauss syndrome-associated heart failure and left ventricular thrombosis.

We present a case of a 47-year-old woman with a history of asthma and mononeuritis who presented with shortness of breath and fatigue. Heart failure was diagnosed and echocardiography revealed large floating thrombi attached to the left ventricular walls. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging showed evidence of myocarditis and angiitis. Blood count revealed eosinophilia. She was diagnosed with eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis or Churg-Strauss syndrome (CSS) according to recently updated criteria. Medical management with specific aetiology (anticoagulation or immunosuppression) and heart failure treatment resulted in clinical improvement. We further discuss the diagnostic approach of CSS with cardiovascular complications and therapeutic management.

Quality metrics in the management of acute stroke in Greece during the first 5 years of Registry of Stroke Care Quality (RES-Q) implementation.

Introduction: Establishment of a prospective stroke registry may promote the documentation and improvement of acute stroke care. We present the status of stroke management in Greece using the Registry of Stroke Care Quality (RES-Q) dataset. Methods: Consecutive patients with acute stroke were prospectively registered in RES-Q registry by contributing sites in Greece during the years 2017-2021. Demographic and baseline characteristics, acute management, and clinical outcomes at discharge were recorded. Stroke quality metrics, with a specific interest in the association between acute reperfusion therapies and functional recovery in ischemic stroke patients are presented. Results: A total of 3590 acute stroke patients were treated in 20 Greek sites (61% men, median age 64 years; median baseline NIHSS 4; 74% ischemic stroke). Acute reperfusion therapies were administered in almost 20% of acute ischemic stroke patients, with a door to needle and door to groin puncture times of 40 and 64 min, respectively. After adjustment for contributing sites, the rates of acute reperfusion therapies were higher during the time epoch 2020-2021 compared to 2017-2019 (adjusted OR 1.31; 95% CI 1.04-1.64; p < 0.022; Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel test). After propensity-score-matching, acute reperfusion therapies administration was independently associated with higher odds of reduced disability (one point reduction across all mRS scores) at hospital discharge (common OR 1.93; 95% CI 1.45-2.58; p < 0.001). Conclusions: Implementation and maintenance of a nationwide stroke registry in Greece may guide the stroke management planning, so that prompt patient transportation, acute reperfusion therapies, and stroke unit hospitalization become more widely accessible, improving the functional outcomes of stroke patients.

Delayed Leucoencephalopathy as a Complication after Endovascular Therapy of Intracranial Aneurysms-A Case Series.

We describe the clinical presentation, radiological findings, treatment and outcomes of three patients with delayed leukoencephalopathy occurring after endovascular treatment (EVT) for cerebral aneurysms-a rare, albeit recurring, complication. The symptoms occurred 6 to 12 months following the EVT of the cerebral aneurysm. Characteristic imaging findings included high-signal changes on T2 images in the white matter without diffusion restriction predominantly at the distribution of the vascular territory of the catheterized arteries, coupled with patchy gadolinium enhancement or low susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) signals within the white-matter lesions. Steroid pulse therapy is the treatment of choice and promptly improves clinical and imaging findings. Tapering or cessation of steroids may result in clinical and imaging relapses; close- and long-term follow-up for patients presenting this complication is warranted.

Fabry Disease: Current and Novel Therapeutic Strategies. A Narrative Review.

BACKGROUND: Fabry disease (FD) is an inherited lysosomal storage disorder, leading to multisystemic manifestations and causing significant morbidity and mortality. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this narrative review is to present the current and novel therapeutic strategies in FD, including symptomatic and specific treatment options. METHODS: A systematic literature search was conducted to identify relevant studies, including completed and ongoing randomized-controlled clinical trials (RCTs), prospective or retrospective cohort studies, case series and case reports that provided clinical data regarding FD treatment. RESULTS: A multidisciplinary symptomatic treatment is recommended for FD patients, personalized according to disease manifestations and their severity. During the last two decades, FD-specific treatments, including two enzyme-replacement-therapies (agalsidase alfa and agalsidase beta) and chaperone treatment with migalastat have been approved for use and allowed for symptoms' stabilization or even disease burden reduction. More therapeutic agents are currently under investigation. Substrate reduction therapies, including lucerastat and venglustat, have shown promising results in RCTs and may be used either as monotherapy or as complementary therapy to established enzymereplacement- therapies. More stable enzyme-replacement-therapy molecules that are associated with less adverse events and lower likelihood of neutralizing antibodies formation have also been developed. Ex-vivo and in-vivo gene therapy is being tested in animal models and pilot human clinical trials, with preliminary results showing a favorable safety and efficacy profile. CONCLUSION: The therapeutic landscape in FD appears to be actively expanding with more treatment options expected to become available in the near future, allowing for a more personalized approach in FD patients.

Telltale Signs of Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension With Normal Opening Cerebrospinal Fluid Pressure.

Introduction: Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension (IIH) with normal opening cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure comprises a rare IIH variant. Case Report: We report the case of a non-obese Caucasian woman, who presented with asymmetrical papilledema, typical IIH-findings on optic nerve sonography and brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and was diagnosed with IIH despite normal opening CSF pressure. Following treatment with acetazolamide, a complete remission of her symptoms was achieved, accompanied by significant improvement of the fundoscopy findings. Conclusion: Although normal opening CSF pressure in IIH patients is rare, clinicians should be aware of this IIH variant and promptly indicate IIH treatment in patients presenting with typical clinical symptoms and neuroimaging findings suggestive of IIH.

Bilateral dural arteriovenous fistula diagnosed with neurovascular ultrasonography.

BACKGROUND: Intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulas (dAVFs) are pathological anastomoses between meningeal arteries and dural venous sinuses or cortical veins. Diagnosis of dAVFs can be challenging due to their broad range of clinical manifestations and the lack of specificity in their symptoms. We present a rare case of a patient with bilateral dAVFs, who was referred to our department for carotid doppler ultrasonography/transcranial color Doppler. CASE REPORT: A 67-year-old man was referred by his treating physician for neurovascular ultrasonography due to vision impairment associated with papilledema of both eyes. On ultrasound examination both external carotid arteries showed a "pseudo-internalization" pattern with high end-diastolic velocities and reduced resistance indices. Subsequent magnetic resonance and digital subtraction angiography revealed dAVF of both transverse sinuses, with occipital and medial meningeal arteries as feeders. CONCLUSIONS: Neurovascular sonography may serve as a screening and follow-up tool when a DAVF in the transverse sinus/sigmoid sinus is suspected.

Diagnosis and treatment of acute isolated proximal internal carotid artery occlusions: a narrative review.

The clinical manifestations of proximal (extracranial) internal carotid artery occlusions (pICAOs) may range from asymptomatic to acute, large, and devastating ischemic strokes. The etiology and pathophysiology of the occlusion, intracranial collateral status and patient's premorbid status are among the factors determining the clinical presentation and outcome of pICAOs. Rapid and accurate diagnosis is crucial and may be assisted by the combination of carotid and transcranial duplex sonography, or a computed tomography/magnetic resonance angiography (CTA/MRA). It should be noted that with either imaging modalities, the discrimination of a pseudo-occlusion of the extracranial internal carotid artery (ICA) from a true pICAO may not be straightforward. In the absence of randomized data, the management of acute, symptomatic pICAOs remains individualized and relies largely on expert opinion. Administration of intravenous thrombolysis is reasonable and probably beneficial in the settings of acute ischemic stroke with early presentation. Unfortunately, rates of recanalization are rather low and acute interventional reperfusion therapies emerge as a potentially powerful therapeutic option for patients with persistent and severe symptoms. However, none of the pivotal clinical trials on mechanical thrombectomy for acute ischemic stroke randomized patients with isolated extracranial large vessel occlusions. On the contrary, several lines of evidence from non-randomized studies have shown that acute carotid endarterectomy, or endovascular thrombectomy/stenting of the ICA are feasible and safe, and pοtentially beneficial. The heterogeneity in the pathophysiology and clinical presentation of acute pICAOs renders patient selection for an acute interventional treatment a complicated decision-making process. The present narrative review will outline the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic challenges, and possible treatment options for pICAOs.