Design and synthesis of a library of C8-substituted sulfamidoadenosines to probe bacterial permeability.

Gram-negative bacteria pose a major challenge in antibiotic drug discovery because their cell envelope presents a permeability barrier that affords high intrinsic resistance to small-molecule drugs. The identification of correlations between chemical structure and Gram-negative permeability would thus enable development of predictive tools to facilitate antibiotic discovery. Toward this end, have advanced a library design paradigm in which various chemical scaffolds are functionalized at different regioisomeric positions using a uniform reagent set. This design enables decoupling of scaffold, regiochemistry, and substituent effects upon Gram-negative permeability of these molecules. Building upon our recent synthesis of a library of C2-substituted sulfamidoadenosines, we have now developed an efficient synthetic route to an analogous library of regioisomeric C8-substituted congeners. The C8 library samples a region of antibiotic-relevant chemical space that is similar to that addressed by the C2 library, but distinct from that sampled by a library of analogously substituted oxazolidinones. Selected molecules were tested for accumulation in Escherichia coli in a pilot analysis, setting the stage for full comparative evaluation of these libraries in the future.

An anchor-tether 'hindered' HCN1 inhibitor is antihyperalgesic in a rat spared nerve injury neuropathic pain model.

BACKGROUND: Neuropathic pain impairs quality of life, is widely prevalent, and incurs significant costs. Current pharmacological therapies have poor/no efficacy and significant adverse effects; safe and effective alternatives are needed. Hyperpolarisation-activated cyclic nucleotide-regulated (HCN) channels are causally implicated in some forms of peripherally mediated neuropathic pain. Whilst 2,6-substituted phenols, such as 2,6-di-tert-butylphenol (26DTB-P), selectively inhibit HCN1 gating and are antihyperalgesic, the development of therapeutically tolerable, HCN-selective antihyperalgesics based on their inverse agonist activity requires that such drugs spare the cardiac isoforms and do not cross the blood-brain barrier. METHODS: In silico molecular dynamics simulation, in vitro electrophysiology, and in vivo rat spared nerve injury methods were used to test whether 'hindered' variants of 26DTB-P (wherein a hydrophilic 'anchor' is attached in the para-position of 26DTB-P via an acyl chain 'tether') had the desired properties. RESULTS: Molecular dynamics simulation showed that membrane penetration of hindered 26DTB-Ps is controlled by a tethered diol anchor without elimination of head group rotational freedom. In vitro and in vivo analysis showed that BP4L-18:1:1, a variant wherein a diol anchor is attached to 26DTB-P via an 18-carbon tether, is an HCN1 inverse agonist and an orally available antihyperalgesic. With a CNS multiparameter optimisation score of 2.25, a >100-fold lower drug load in the brain vs blood, and an absence of adverse cardiovascular or CNS effects, BP4L-18:1:1 was shown to be poorly CNS penetrant and cardiac sparing. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide a proof-of-concept demonstration that anchor-tethered drugs are a new chemotype for treatment of disorders involving membrane targets.

Alkylphenol inverse agonists of HCN1 gating: H-bond propensity, ring saturation and adduct geometry differentially determine efficacy and potency.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: In models of neuropathic pain, inhibition of HCN1 is anti-hyperalgesic. 2,6-di-iso-propyl phenol (propofol) and its non-anesthetic congener, 2,6-di-tert-butyl phenol, inhibit HCN1 channels by stabilizing closed state(s). EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Using in vitro electrophysiology and kinetic modeling, we systematically explore the contribution of ligand architecture to alkylphenol-channel coupling. KEY RESULTS: When corrected for changes in hydrophobicity (and propensity for intra-membrane partitioning), the decrease in potency upon 1-position substitution (NCO∼OH >> SH >>> F) mirrors the ligands' H-bond acceptor (NCO > OH > SH >>> F) but not donor profile (OH > SH >>> NCO∼F). H-bond elimination (OH to F) corresponds to a ΔΔG of ∼4.5 kCal mol-1 loss of potency with little or no disruption of efficacy. Substitution of compact alkyl groups (iso-propyl, tert-butyl) with shorter (ethyl, methyl) or more extended (sec-butyl) adducts disrupts both potency and efficacy. Ring saturation (with the obligate loss of both planarity and π electrons) primarily disrupts efficacy. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: A hydrophobicity-independent decrement in potency at higher volumes suggests the alkylbenzene site has a volume of ≥800 Å3. Within this, a relatively static (with respect to ligand) H-bond donor contributes to initial binding with little involvement in generation of coupling energy. The influence of π electrons/ring planarity and alkyl adducts on efficacy reveals these aspects of the ligand present towards a face of the channel that undergoes structural changes during opening. The site's characteristics suggest it is "druggable"; introduction of other adducts on the ring may generate higher potency inverse agonists.

Identification of a Mycothiol-Dependent Nitroreductase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

The success of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) as a pathogen depends on the redundant and complex mechanisms it has evolved for resisting nitrosative and oxidative stresses inflicted by host immunity. Improving our understanding of these defense pathways can reveal vulnerable points in Mtb pathogenesis. In this study, we combined genetic, structural, computational, biochemical, and biophysical approaches to identify a novel enzyme class represented by Rv2466c. We show that Rv2466c is a mycothiol-dependent nitroreductase of Mtb and can reduce the nitro group of a novel mycobactericidal compound using mycothiol as a cofactor. In addition to its function as a nitroreductase, Rv2466c confers partial protection to menadione stress.

Tunable Molecular Logic Gates Designed for Imaging Released Neurotransmitters.

Tunable dual-analyte fluorescent molecular logic gates (ExoSensors) were designed for the purpose of imaging select vesicular primary-amine neurotransmitters that are released from secretory vesicles upon exocytosis. ExoSensors are based on the coumarin-3-aldehyde scaffold and rely on both neurotransmitter binding and the change in environmental pH associated with exocytosis to afford a unique turn-on fluorescence output. A pH-functionality was directly integrated into the fluorophore π-system of the scaffold, thereby allowing for an enhanced fluorescence output upon the release of labeled neurotransmitters. By altering the pH-sensitive unit with various electron-donating and -withdrawing sulfonamide substituents, we identified a correlation between the pKa of the pH-sensitive group and the fluorescence output from the activated fluorophore. In doing so, we achieved a twelvefold fluorescence enhancement upon evaluating the ExoSensors under conditions that mimic exocytosis. ExoSensors are aptly suited to serve as molecular imaging tools that allow for the direct visualization of only the neurotransmitters that are released from secretory vesicles upon exocytosis.

In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effects of a novel 4,6-bis ((E)-4-hydroxy-3-methoxystyryl)-1-phenethylpyrimidine-2(1H)-thione.

Inflammation plays a critical defensive role in the human body. However, uncontrolled or aberrant inflammatory responses contribute to various acute and chronic diseases. The Nrf2-ARE pathway plays a pivotal role in the regulation of inflammatory markers, such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). On the basis of this concept, we synthesized a novel anti-inflammatory 4,6-bis ((E)-4-hydroxy-3-methoxystyryl)-1-phenethylpyrimidine-2(1H)-thione (HPT), and in vitro experiments using HepG2-C8 ARE-luciferase-transfected cells demonstrated the induction of Nrf2-ARE activity. In lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells, HPT treatment reduced the production of nitric oxide (NO) as well as the protein and mRNA expression levels of COX-2 and iNOS, in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, HPT suppressed the mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1ß, and IL-6. In LPS-induced macrophages, HPT inhibited COX-2 and iNOS by blocking the activation of p38 and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) but not extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2). Furthermore, an in vivo anti-inflammatory study was performed using a TPA-induced skin inflammation mouse model, and the results showed that HPT reduced TPA-induced inflammation and attenuated the expression of COX-2 and iNOS in TPA-induced mouse skin tissue. Thus, HPT demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity both in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells and TPA-stimulated mouse skin and may therefore serve as a potential anti-inflammatory agent.