Small intestinal CaSR-dependent and CaSR-independent protein sensing regulates feeding and glucose tolerance in rats.

Proteins activate small intestinal calcium sensing receptor (CaSR) and/or peptide transporter 1 (PepT1) to increase hormone secretion1-8, but the effect of small intestinal protein sensing and the mechanistic potential of CaSR and/or PepT1 in feeding and glucose regulation remain inconclusive. Here we show that, in male rats, CaSR in the upper small intestine is required for casein infusion to increase glucose tolerance and GLP1 and GIP secretion, which was also dependent on PepT1 (ref. 9). PepT1, but not CaSR, is required for casein infusion to lower feeding. Upper small intestine casein sensing fails to regulate feeding, but not glucose tolerance, in high-fat-fed rats with decreased PepT1 but increased CaSR expression. In the ileum, a CaSR-dependent but PepT1-independent pathway is required for casein infusion to lower feeding and increase glucose tolerance in chow-fed rats, in parallel with increased PYY and GLP1 release, respectively. High fat decreases ileal CaSR expression and disrupts casein sensing on feeding but not on glucose control, suggesting an ileal CaSR-independent, glucose-regulatory pathway. In summary, we discover small intestinal CaSR- and PepT1-dependent and -independent protein sensing mechanisms that regulate gut hormone release, feeding and glucose tolerance. Our findings highlight the potential of targeting small intestinal CaSR and/or PepT1 to regulate feeding and glucose tolerance.

Metformin triggers a kidney GDF15-dependent area postrema axis to regulate food intake and body weight.

Metformin, the most widely prescribed medication for obesity-associated type 2 diabetes (T2D), lowers plasma glucose levels, food intake, and body weight in rodents and humans, but the mechanistic site(s) of action remain elusive. Metformin increases plasma growth/differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) levels to regulate energy balance, while GDF15 administration activates GDNF family receptor α-like (GFRAL) that is highly expressed in the area postrema (AP) and the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) of the hindbrain to lower food intake and body weight. However, the tissue-specific contribution of plasma GDF15 levels after metformin treatment is still under debate. Here, we found that metformin increased plasma GDF15 levels in high-fat (HF) fed male rats through the upregulation of GDF15 synthesis in the kidney. Importantly, the kidney-specific knockdown of GDF15 expression as well as the AP-specific knockdown of GFRAL expression negated the ability of metformin to lower food intake and body weight gain. Taken together, we unveil the kidney as a target of metformin to regulate energy homeostasis through a kidney GDF15-dependent AP axis.

A glucose-sensing mechanism with glucose transporter 1 and pyruvate kinase in the area postrema regulates hepatic glucose production in rats.

The area postrema (AP) of the brain is exposed to circulating metabolites and hormones. However, whether AP detects glucose changes to exert biological responses remains unknown. Its neighboring nuclei, the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), responds to acute glucose infusion by inhibiting hepatic glucose production, but the mechanism also remains elusive. Herein, we characterized AP and NTS glucose-sensing mechanisms. Infusion of glucose into the AP, like the NTS, of chow rats suppressed glucose production during the pancreatic (basal insulin)-euglycemic clamps. Glucose transporter 1 or pyruvate kinase lentiviral-mediated knockdown in the AP negated AP glucose infusion to lower glucose production, while the glucoregulatory effect of NTS glucose infusion was also negated by knocking down glucose transporter 1 or pyruvate kinase in the NTS. Furthermore, we determined that high-fat (HF) feeding disrupts glucose infusion to lower glucose production in association with a modest reduction in the expression of glucose transporter 1, but not pyruvate kinase, in the AP and NTS. However, pyruvate dehydrogenase activator dichloroacetate infusion into the AP or NTS that enhanced downstream pyruvate metabolism and recapitulated the glucoregulatory effect of glucose in chow rats still failed to lower glucose production in HF rats. We discovered that a glucose transporter 1- and pyruvate kinase-dependent glucose-sensing mechanism in the AP (as well as the NTS) lowers glucose production in chow rats and that HF disrupts the glucose-sensing mechanism that is downstream of pyruvate metabolism in the AP and NTS. These findings highlight the role of AP and NTS in mediating glucose to regulate hepatic glucose production.