The Effect of Time-Restricted Eating on Insulin Levels and Insulin Sensitivity in Patients with Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome: A Systematic Review.

Results: 2662 papers were identified with 37 selected for full-text review and one paper meeting criteria for inclusion. Ramadan fasting was the only time-restricted eating regimen trialled in this population with no strong evidence of a significant effect on insulin levels. Conclusion: As the systematic review retrieved only one study investigating time-restricted eating to reduce insulin in patients with PCOS, there is no evidence to suggest that this intervention is effective. From the narrative review, based on studies in other patient groups, time-restricted eating could improve insulin resistance in those with PCOS; however, well-designed studies are required before this intervention can be recommended.

Measurement of selected androgens using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in reproductive-age women with Type 1 diabetes.

STUDY QUESTION: What information does androgen profiling using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) provide in reproductive-age women with Type 1 diabetes (T1D)? SUMMARY ANSWER: In T1D women, androstenedione proved most useful of the measured androgens in differentiating subgroups based on clinical phenotypes of hyperandrogenism (HA) and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: The prevalence of HA and PCOS are increased in women with T1D. These observations are based on measurement of serum androgens using immunoassays, to-date no studies using LC-MS/MS have been reported in reproductive-age women with T1D. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: This was a cross-sectional study with recruitment of three groups of reproductive-age women: women with T1D (n = 87), non-diabetic women with (N = 97) and without PCOS (N = 101). PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: Using LC-MS/MS, we aimed to characterize androgen profiles and PCOS status in women with T1D, and interpret findings in relation to cohorts of non-diabetic women with and without PCOS. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: Compared to non-diabetic women, dehydroepiandrosterone/dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEA/DHEAS) ratio was lower (P < 0.05) in women with T1D. Testosterone levels were greater in T1D women with clinical HA and anovulation compared to those without clinical HA and with regular cycles, while androstenedione levels were greater in T1D women with HA and anovulation compared to those with HA and regular cycles and also those without HA and with regular cycles (P < 0.05 for all). Compared to T1D women without PCOS, the 18% of T1D women who had PCOS were younger with lower BMI, an older age of menarche, and were more likely to have a positive family history of PCOS (P < 0.05 for all). Androgen levels did not differ between women with T1D and PCOS compared to BMI-matched non-diabetic women with PCOS, but androstenedione levels were greater in T1D women with PCOS compared to obese women with PCOS (P < 0.05). LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: Relatively small subgroups of patients were studied, reducing the power to detect small differences. Free testosterone levels were not measured using equilibrium dialysis, and were not calculated - commonly used formulae have not been validated in T1D. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: Androstenedione is a sensitive biochemical marker of clinical hyperandrogenism and PCOS in T1D. T1D women with PCOS are leaner than those without PCOS but are more likely to have a family history of PCOS. Women with T1D and PCOS have a similar biochemical phenotype to lean non-diabetic women with PCOS but differ from obese women with PCOS. The mechanisms underlying PCOS in T1D and its clinical significance require further investigation. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S): The study was part-funded by the Meath Foundation. The authors have no competing interests.

The incidence of anterior pituitary hormone deficiencies in patients with microprolactinoma and idiopathic hyperprolactinaemia.

INTRODUCTION: Patients with microprolactinoma and idiopathic hyperprolactinaemia are not generally considered to be at risk of hypopituitarism and are therefore not routinely screened for this abnormality. In our clinical practice, we have observed a number of patients with nonmacroadenomatous hyperprolactinaemia to have anterior pituitary hormone deficits. AIMS: We aimed to establish the frequency and clinical significance of anterior pituitary hormone deficiencies, comparing patients with radiologically proven microprolactinomas and patients with idiopathic hyperprolactinaemia. STUDY DESIGN: We retrospectively examined the casenotes of 206 patients with hyperprolactinaemia from our centre. Patients who did not fit the profile of surgically naïve microprolactinoma or idiopathic hyperprolactinaemia or who had incomplete data were excluded, resulting in a study group of 56 patients. RESULTS: A total of 35 patients with MRI evidence of microprolactinoma were identified, three (8.57%) of whom had one or more anterior pituitary hormone deficiencies. A total of 21 patients with MRI-negative idiopathic hyperprolactinaemia were identified, nine (42%) of whom had one or more anterior pituitary hormone deficiencies (P<.01). Only one patient in the MRI-positive group had deficiency that required hormone replacement, in contrast six patients in the MRI-negative group had deficiencies that were of clinical significance and which required hormone replacement. SUMMARY: This study shows a clinically significant incidence of anterior pituitary hormone deficiency in patients with idiopathic hyperprolactinaemia. The authors recommend that dynamic pituitary assessment should be considered routinely in this patient group. A prospective study would be required to assess the underlying cause for these abnormalities, as they suggest a nontumour pan-pituitary process.

Endocrinopathies and renal outcomes in lithium therapy: impact of lithium toxicity.

BACKGROUND: Lithium is the mainstay of treatment for bipolar disorder, mania and an augmentation therapy in patients with treatment resistant depression. It has a narrow therapeutic index, with recognized adverse multi-system and endocrine side effects. AIM: To assess the impact of lithium therapy, in particular lithium toxicity, on the development of endocrine and renal disorders in a cohort of patients in a single tertiary referral centre in Ireland. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective analysis was performed of the prevalence of lithium toxicity and renal, thyroid and parathyroid dysfunction in our study population. METHODS: We collected laboratory data from the Clinical Chemistry department of the Adelaide and Meath Hospital incorporating the National Children's Hospital (AMNCH), Dublin, Ireland. Our study population included all patients who had at least one serum lithium measurement from January 1st 2000 to December 31st 2014 inclusive. RESULTS: A total of 580 patients were included in the study. Among our study group, 70 patients (12.1%) had 1 toxic lithium measurement (lithium level >1.2 mmol/l). 27.8% (n > 161) of patients developed stage 3 Chronic kidney Disease (CKD) or higher, which was commoner in those patients who developed toxic lithium levels (P < 0.0001) and in those who developed hypernatraemia (P > 0.0001). 16.2% of patients (n > 94) had one serum sodium >145 mmol/l during follow up. 60 patients(10.3%) had a TSH >10 mU/l, while complete suppression of TSH (<0.05 mU/l) was observed in 22 patients (3.8%) during follow-up. 4% (n > 37) of the study population had ≥1 serum corrected calcium level > 2.55 mmol/l, and 4 patients had biochemical confirmation of primary hyperparathyroidism but PTH levels were only performed in 2.8% (n > 16) of the studypopulation. CONCLUSION: Stage 3 CKD is common in patients receiving lithium therapy. Lithium toxicity is associated with CKD and hypernatraemia. Thyroid dysfunction and hypercalcaemia are common in patients receiving lithium therapy. Patients receiving lithium therapy require surveillance of renal, thyroid and bone biochemistry.

Abnormal plasma sodium concentrations in patients treated with desmopressin for cranial diabetes insipidus: results of a long-term retrospective study.

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE: Patients with cranial diabetes insipidus (CDI) are at risk of developing both hypernatraemia and hyponatraemia, due to the condition itself or secondary to treatment with vasopressin-analogues or during administration of i.v. fluids. We aimed to assess the frequency and impact of dysnatraemias in the inpatient (INPT) and outpatient (OPT) setting in desmopressin-treated CDI, comparing those with normal thirst with those with abnormal thirst. DESIGN: The study included 192 patients with cranial diabetes, who were identified from the Beaumont Pituitary Database, a tertiary referral centre. Retrospective case note audit was performed and the clinical and biochemical information of 147 patients with CDI were available for analysis. RESULTS: A total of 4142 plasma sodium measurements for 137 patients with normal thirst, and 385 plasma sodium measurements for ten patients with abnormal thirst were analysed. In those with normal thirst, the most common OPT abnormality was mild hyponatraemia (pNa(+) 131-134  mmol/l) in 27%, while 14.6% had more significant hyponatraemia (pNa(+) ≤130  mmol/l). Of those patients with normal thirst, 5.8% were admitted due to complications directly related to hyponatraemia. Compared with patients with normal thirst, those with abnormal thirst were more likely to develop significant OPT hypernatraemia (20% vs 1.4%, P=0.02) and significant INPT hyponatraemia (50% vs 11.1%, P 0.02). CONCLUSION: OPT management of CDI is complicated by a significant incidence of hyponatraemia. In contrast, OPT hypernatraemia is almost exclusively a complication seen in adipsic CDI, who also had more frequent INPT hyponatraemia. CDI associated with thirst disorder requires increased physician attention and patient awareness of potential complications.

Chronic hypopituitarism is uncommon in survivors of aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage.

OBJECTIVE: The incidence of hypopituitarism after aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) is unclear from the conflicting reports in the literature. As routine neuroendocrine screening for hypopituitarism for all patients would be costly and logistically difficult, there is a need for precise data on the frequency of hypopituitarism and on factors which might predict the later development of pituitary dysfunction. We aimed to: (i) Establish the incidence of long-term hypopituitarism in patients with aneurysmal SAH. (ii) Determine whether data from patients' acute admission with SAH could predict the occurrence of long-term hypopituitarism. DESIGN: One hundred patients were studied prospectively from the time of presentation with acute SAH. Plasma cortisol, plasma sodium and a variety of clinical and haemodynamic parameters were sequentially measured for the first 12 days of their acute admission. Forty-one patients then underwent dynamic pituitary testing at median 15 months following SAH (range 7-30 months), with insulin tolerance test (ITT) or, if contraindicated, a glucagon stimulation test (GST) plus short synacthen test (SST). If symptoms of cranial diabetes insipidus (CDI) were present, a water deprivation test was also performed. RESULTS: Forty-one patients attended for follow-up dynamic pituitary testing. Although 14 of 100 had acute glucocorticoid deficiency immediately following SAH, only two of 41 had long-term adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) deficiency and four of 41 had growth hormone (GH) deficiency. None were hypothyroid or gonadotrophin deficient. None had chronic CDI or hyponatraemia. There was no association between acute glucocorticoid deficiency, acute CDI or acute hyponatraemia and long-term pituitary dysfunction. CONCLUSION: Both anterior and posterior hypopituitarism are very uncommon following SAH and are not predicted by acute clinical, haemodynamic or endocrinological parameters. Routine neuroendocrine screening is not justified in SAH patients.

Hyponatremia following mild/moderate subarachnoid hemorrhage is due to SIAD and glucocorticoid deficiency and not cerebral salt wasting.

CONTEXT: Hyponatremia is common after acute subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) but the etiology is unclear and there is a paucity of prospective data in the field. The cause of hyponatremia is variously attributed to the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis (SIAD), acute glucocorticoid insufficiency, and the cerebral salt wasting syndrome (CSWS). OBJECTIVE: The objective was to prospectively determine the etiology of hyponatremia after SAH using sequential clinical examination and biochemical measurement of plasma cortisol, arginine vasopressin (AVP), and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP). DESIGN: This was a prospective cohort study. SETTING: The setting was the National Neurosurgery Centre in a tertiary referral centre in Dublin, Ireland. PATIENTS: One hundred patients with acute nontraumatic aneurysmal SAH were recruited on presentation. INTERVENTIONS: Clinical examination and basic biochemical evaluation were performed daily. Plasma cortisol at 0900 hours, AVP, and BNP concentrations were measured on days 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 following SAH. Those with 0900 hours plasma cortisol<300 nmol/L were empirically treated with iv hydrocortisone. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Plasma sodium concentration was recorded daily along with a variety of clinical and biochemical criteria. The cause of hyponatremia was determined clinically. Later measurement of plasma AVP and BNP concentrations enabled a firm biochemical diagnosis of the cause of hyponatremia to be made. RESULTS: Forty-nine of 100 developed hyponatremia<135 mmol/L, including 14/100<130 mmol/L. The cause of hyponatremia, and determined by both clinical examination and biochemical hormone measurement, was SIAD in 36/49 (71.4%), acute glucocorticoid insufficiency in 4/49 (8.2%), incorrect iv fluids in 5/49 (10.2%), and hypovolemia in 5/49 (10.2%). There were no cases of CSWS. CONCLUSIONS: The most common cause of hyponatremia after acute nontraumatic aneurysmal SAH is SIAD. Acute glucocorticoid insufficiency accounts for a small but significant number of cases. We found no cases of CSWS.

Acute glucocorticoid deficiency and diabetes insipidus are common after acute traumatic brain injury and predict mortality.

CONTEXT: Published data demonstrates that hypopituitarism is common after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Hormone deficiencies are transient in many, but the natural history of the acute changes after TBI has not been documented. In addition, it is not clear whether there are any early parameters that accurately predict the development of permanent hypopituitarism. OBJECTIVES: There were 3 main objectives of this study: 1) to describe the natural history of plasma cortisol (PC) changes and sodium balance after TBI; 2) to identify whether acute hypocortisolemia or cranial diabetes insipidus (CDI) predict mortality; and 3) to identify whether the acute pituitary dysfunction predicts the development of chronic anterior hypopituitarism. DESIGN: Each TBI patient underwent sequential measurement of PC, plasma sodium, urine osmolality, and fluid balance after TBI. All other anterior pituitary hormones were measured on day 10 after TBI. The results from 15 surgical comparisons defined a PC less than 300 nmol/L as inappropriately low for an acutely ill patient. CDI was diagnosed according to standard criteria. Surviving TBI patients underwent dynamic anterior pituitary testing at least 6 months after TBI. SETTING: The patients were recruited from the Irish National Neurosurgery Centre. PATIENTS: One hundred sequential TBI patients were recruited. Fifteen patients admitted to Intensive Therapy Unit (ITU) after major surgery were recruited as comparison patients. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: PC in TBI patients was compared with that of comparison patients. The mortality rate was compared between TBI patients with and without acute hypocortisolemia. Results of follow-up dynamic pituitary testing were compared between those with and without acute hypocortisolemia. RESULTS: Most of the TBI patients (78%) developed inappropriately low PC after TBI. Low PC and CDI were predictive of mortality. Thirty-nine percent of the patients who had follow-up testing had at least 1 pituitary hormone deficit, all of whom had had previous acute hypocortisolemia or CDI. CONCLUSIONS: Acute hypocortisolemia and CDI are predictive of mortality and long-term pituitary deficits in TBI.

Serum prolactin concentration at presentation of non-functioning pituitary macroadenomas.

OBJECTIVE: Serum PRL levels at presentation may be useful in distinguishing between disconnection hyperprolactinemia in non-secretory pituitary adenomas and prolactinomas in order to guide appropriate therapy; however, there is a debate regarding the discriminatory PRL thresholds. We aimed to examine PRL concentrations at presentation in a cohort of histologically proven non-functioning pituitary adenomas (NFPA). DESIGN AND METHODS: Retrospective case note analysis was performed. Clinical, biochemical, histopathological and radiological data were recorded and analyzed. Complete data were available for 250 subjects with NFPA. RESULTS: Of the study population, 44.8% were hyperprolactinemic at presentation, 55.3% of whom were female. Of those with hyperprolactinemia, 73.2% had PRL<1000 mIU/l on presentation, 24.1% had PRL between 1000 and 1999 mIU/l. Only 2.7% (no.=3 females, 1.2% whole cohort) had PRL>2000 mIU/l (94.3 ng/ml), 2 of whom were pregnant. No male subject and no subjects with an intrasellar macroadenoma had serum PRL>1000 mIU/l (47.2 ng/ml). Overall, serum PRL was not higher among 43 subjects taking medications known to raise PRL. CONCLUSIONS: Our data support recent evidence that the serum PRL concentration is rarely >1000 mIU/l in males, or >2000 mIU/l in females, with non-functioning macroadenomas and that, once other contributing factors to the hyperprolactinemia have been excluded, a trial of dopamine agonist therapy for such lesions is indicated.

Anterior hypopituitarism is rare and autoimmune disease is common in adults with idiopathic central diabetes insipidus.

OBJECTIVE: Central diabetes insipidus is a rare clinical condition with a heterogenous aetiology. Up to 40% of cases are classified as idiopathic, although many of these are thought to have an autoimmune basis. Published data have suggested that anterior hypopituitarism is common in childhood-onset idiopathic diabetes insipidus. We aimed to assess the incidence of anterior hypopituitarism in a cohort of adult patients with idiopathic diabetes insipidus. DESIGN AND PATIENTS: We performed a retrospective review of the databases of two pituitary investigation units. This identified 39 patients with idiopathic diabetes insipidus. All had undergone magnetic resonance imaging scanning and dynamic pituitary testing (either insulin tolerance testing or GHRH/arginine and short synacthen testing) to assess anterior pituitary function. RESULTS: One patient had partial growth hormone deficiency; no other anterior pituitary hormonal deficits were found. Thirty-three percent had at least one autoimmune disease in addition to central diabetes insipidus. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that anterior hypopituitarism is rare in adult idiopathic diabetes insipidus. Routine screening of these patients for anterior hypopituitarism may not, therefore, be indicated. The significant prevalence of autoimmune disease in this cohort supports the hypothesis that idiopathic diabetes insipidus may have an autoimmune aetiology.

Somnolence in adult craniopharyngioma patients is a common, heterogeneous condition that is potentially treatable.

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE: Somnolence and obesity are prevalent in craniopharyngioma patients. We hypothesized that somnolence was because of obstructive sleep apnoea in craniopharyngioma patients. DESIGN, PATIENTS AND MEASUREMENTS: We assessed prevalence of somnolence and sleep apnoea in 28 craniopharyngioma and 23 obese controls attending a tertiary referral centre, by means of the Epworth Sleepiness Score (ESS) and polysomnography. All subjects with sleep apnoea were offered continuous positive airway pressure therapy (CPAP) or modafinil. All craniopharyngioma patients, with unexplained somnolence, were offered modafinil. RESULTS: Somnolence was reported by 20/28 (71·5%) craniopharyngioma patients and 4/23 (17%) obese subjects (P < 0·001). Median ESS was 7·5 (IQR 6, 10·7) in craniopharyngioma patients and 4·0 (4,8) in controls, P < 0·01. Eleven somnolent craniopharyngioma patients had obstructive sleep apnoea, in whom treatment led to a reduction in ESS by 6·4 ± 1·4, P = 0·01. Among the remaining nine patients, five were offered modafinil therapy, of whom four had benefit, three were not compliant with hormone replacement, and one died before intervention. There was no difference in the prevalence of obstructive sleep apnoea between craniopharyngioma (n = 13, 46%) and obese subjects (n = 14, 61%, P = 0·4). Body mass index (BMI) does not correlate with apnoea hypopnoea index [apnoea - hypopnoea index (AHI), r = 0·25, P = 0·08], which suggests that obesity alone does not explain the prevalence of sleep apnoea in craniopharyngioma patients. CONCLUSIONS: Somnolence is common in craniopharyngioma patients and in the majority is because of obstructive sleep apnoea. An additional group of somnolent craniopharyngioma patients benefits from modafinil.

Secondary resistance to cabergoline therapy in a macroprolactinoma: a case report and literature review.

Primary resistance to dopamine agonists occurs in 10-15% of prolactinomas but secondary resistance following initial biochemical and anti-proliferative response is very rare and has only been hitherto described in four previous cases, two with bromocriptine and two with cabergoline. We describe a case of a 57-year-old woman who presented with a large macroprolactinoma with suprasellar extension. She was initially treated with bromocriptine therapy with a resolution of symptoms, marked reduction in prolactin concentration and complete tumour shrinkage; a response which was subsequently maintained on cabergoline. After 8 years of dopamine agonist therapy, her prolactin concentration began to rise and there was symptomatic recurrence of her tumour despite escalating doses of cabergoline up to 6 mg weekly. Non-compliance was outruled by observed inpatient drug administration. The patient underwent surgical debulking followed by radiotherapy with good response. This case adds to the previous two cases of secondary resistance to cabergoline therapy in prolactinomas a marked initial response. While the mechanism of secondary resistance remains unknown and not possible to predict, close observation of prolactinoma patients on treatment is necessary.

Morbidity and mortality in patients with craniopharyngioma after surgery.

OBJECTIVE: Craniopharyngioma (CP) is a benign tumour of the suprasellar region that is associated with increased morbidity and mortality in comparison with other causes of hypopituitarism. We aimed to establish the rate and causes of mortality and morbidity in patients with CP who attended our centre. DESIGN: We performed a retrospective case note audit of patients with CP who were managed by our service. We established the standardized mortality ratio (SMR) for patients with CP. We compared obesity prevalence with two other hypopituitary groups who are managed by our service. PATIENTS: We identified 70 patients with CP, 97% of whom had undergone surgery and 42% radiotherapy. We compared the prevalence of obesity with that of 89 patients with hypopituitarism secondary to surgery for nonfunctioning pituitary adenoma and 29 patients with post-traumatic hypopituitarism (PTHP). MEASUREMENTS: Standardized mortality ratio for patients with CP was 8.75 (95% CI of 5.4-13.3); SMR for women was 10.51 (95% CI 5.04-19.3) and 7.55 (95% CI 3.77-13.52) for men. The rates of growth hormone (GH), gonadotrophin, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and TSH deficiencies were 91%, 93.5%, 92% and 86%, respectively. The rate of diabetes insipidus (DI) was 81%; 7.1% had adipsic DI. Dyslipidaemia was present in 46.9% and diabetes mellitus in 11.5%. Obesity affected 66% of patients with CP, 47% of patients with nonfunctioning adenoma and 31% of those with PTHP (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with CP suffer from high rates of mortality and morbidity. The underlying causes for mortality and for obesity in this population remain poorly understood.

Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis due to excessive L-thyroxine replacement in a Caucasian man.

Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis is a potentially fatal complication of hyperthyroidism, more common in Asian races, which is defined by a massive intracellular flux of potassium. This leads to profound hypokalaemia and muscle paralysis. Although the paralysis is temporary, it may be lethal if not diagnosed and treated rapidly, as profound hypokalaemia may induce respiratory muscle paralysis or cardiac arrest. The condition is often misdiagnosed in the west due to its comparative rarity in Caucasians; however it is now increasingly described in Caucasians and is also being seen with increasing frequency in western hospitals due to increasing immigration and population mobility. Here we describe the case of a patient with panhypopituitarism due to a craniopharyngioma, who developed thyrotoxic periodic paralysis due to excessive L-thyroxine replacement. This disorder has been described in Asian subjects but, to our knowledge, thyrotoxic periodic paralysis secondary to excessive L-thyroxine replacement has never been described in Caucasians.

Incidence and pathophysiology of severe hyponatraemia in neurosurgical patients.

BACKGROUND: Hyponatraemia is a well-recognised complication of neurosurgical conditions, but the incidence and implications have not been well documented. OBJECTIVE: To define the incidence, pathophysiology and clinical implications of significant hyponatraemia in several neurosurgical conditions. METHODS: All patients admitted to the Irish National Neurosciences Centre at Beaumont Hospital, Dublin with traumatic brain injury, subarachnoid haemorrhage, intracranial neoplasm, pituitary disorders and spinal disorders who developed significant hyponatraemia (plasma sodium <130 mmol/l) from January 2002 to September 2003 were identified from computerised laboratory records. Data were collected by retrospective case note analysis. RESULTS: Hyponatraemia was more common in patients with pituitary disorders (5/81, 6.25%; p = 0.004), traumatic brain injury (44/457, 9.6%; p<0.001), intracranial neoplasm (56/355, 15.8%; p<0.001) and subarachnoid haemorrhage (62/316, 19.6%; p<0.001) than in those with spinal disorders (4/489, 0.81%). The pathophysiology of hyponatraemia was: syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) in 116 cases (62%) (31 (16.6%) drug-associated), hypovolaemic hyponatraemia in 50 cases (26.7%) (which included patients with insufficient data to assign to the cerebral salt-wasting group (CSWS)), CSWS in nine cases (4.8%), intravenous fluids in seven cases (3.7%) and mixed SIADH/CSWS in five cases (2.7%). Hyponatraemic patients with cerebral irritation had significantly lower plasma sodium concentrations (mean (SD) 124.8 (0.34) mmol/l) than asymptomatic patients (126.6 (0.29) mmol/l) (p<0.0001). Hyponatraemic patients had a significantly longer hospital stay (median 19 days (interquartile range (IQR) 12-28)) than normonatraemic patients (median 12 days (IQR 10.5-15)) (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Hyponatraemia is common in intracerebral disorders and is associated with a longer hospital stay. Cerebral irritation is associated with more severe hyponatraemia. SIADH is the most common cause of hyponatraemia and is often drug-associated.

Neuroendocrine disorders after traumatic brain injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the most common cause of death and disability in young adults living in industrialised countries, in which 180-250 persons per 100 000 per year die or are hospitalised as a result. Neuroendocrine derangements after TBI have received increasing recognition in recent years because of their potential contribution to morbidity, and possibly mortality, after trauma. Marked changes of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis have been documented in the acute phase of TBI, with as many as 80% of patients showing evidence of gonadotropin deficiency, 18% of growth hormone deficiency, 16% of corticotrophin deficiency and 40% of patients demonstrating vasopressin abnormalities leading to diabetes insipidus or the syndrome of inappropriate anti-diuresis. Longitudinal prospective studies have shown that some of the early abnormalities are transient, whereas new endocrine dysfunctions become apparent in the post-acute phase. There remains a high frequency of hypothalamic-pituitary hormone deficiencies among long-term survivors of TBI, with approximately 25% patients showing one or more pituitary hormone deficiencies. This is a higher frequency than previously thought and suggests that most cases of post-traumatic hypopituitarism (PTHP) remain undiagnosed and untreated. PTHP has been associated with adverse outcome both in the acute and chronic phases after injury. These data underscore the need for the identification and appropriate timely management of hormone deficiencies, in order to optimise patient recovery from head trauma, improve quality of life and avoid the long-term adverse consequences of untreated hypopituitarism.