Unpacking the packaged optical fiber bio-sensors: understanding the obstacle for biomedical application.

A biosensor is a promising alternative tool for the detection of clinically relevant analytes. Optical fiber as a transducer element in biosensors offers low cost, biocompatibility, and lack of electromagnetic interference. Moreover, due to the miniature size of optical fibers, they have the potential to be used in microfluidic chips and in vivo applications. The number of optical fiber biosensors are extensively growing: they have been developed to detect different analytes ranging from small molecules to whole cells. Yet the widespread applications of optical fiber biosensor have been hindered; one of the reasons is the lack of suitable packaging for their real-life application. In order to translate optical fiber biosensors into clinical practice, a proper embedding of biosensors into medical devices or portable chips is often required. A proper packaging approach is frequently as challenging as the sensor architecture itself. Therefore, this review aims to give an unpack different aspects of the integration of optical fiber biosensors into packaging platforms to bring them closer to actual clinical use. Particularly, the paper discusses how optical fiber sensors are integrated into flow cells, organized into microfluidic chips, inserted into catheters, or otherwise encased in medical devices to meet requirements of the prospective applications.

Dynamic Measurement of a Cancer Biomarker: Towards In Situ Application of a Fiber-Optic Ball Resonator Biosensor in CD44 Protein Detection.

The accuracy and efficacy of medical treatment would be greatly improved by the continuous and real-time monitoring of protein biomarkers. Identification of cancer biomarkers in patients with solid malignant tumors is receiving increasing attention. Existing techniques for detecting cancer proteins, such as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, require a lot of work, are not multiplexed, and only allow for single-time point observations. In order to get one step closer to clinical usage, a dynamic platform for biosensing the cancer biomarker CD44 using a single-mode optical fiber-based ball resonator biosensor was designed, constructed and evaluated in this work. The main novelty of the work is an in-depth study of the capability of an in-house fabricated optical fiber biosensor for in situ detection of a cancer biomarker (CD44 protein) by conducting several types of experiments. The main results of the work are as follows: (1) Calibration of the fabricated fiber-optic ball resonator sensors in both static and dynamic conditions showed similar sensitivity to the refractive index change demonstrating its usefulness as a biosensing platform for dynamic measurements; (2) The fabricated sensors were shown to be insensitive to pressure changes further confirming their utility as an in situ sensor; (3) The sensor's packaging and placement were optimized to create a better environment for the fabricated ball resonator's performance in blood-mimicking environment; (4) Incubating increasing protein concentrations with antibody-functionalized sensor resulted in nearly instantaneous signal change indicating a femtomolar detection limit in a dynamic range from 7.1 aM to 16.7 nM; (5) The consistency of the obtained signal change was confirmed by repeatability studies; (6) Specificity experiments conducted under dynamic conditions demonstrated that the biosensors are highly selective to the targeted protein; (7) Surface morphology studies by AFM measurements further confirm the biosensor's exceptional sensitivity by revealing a considerable shift in height but no change in surface roughness after detection. The biosensor's ability to analyze clinically relevant proteins in real time with high sensitivity offers an advancement in the detection and monitoring of malignant tumors, hence improving patient diagnosis and health status surveillance.

All-fiber label-free optical fiber biosensors: from modern technologies to current applications [Invited].

Biosensors are established as promising analytical tools for detecting various analytes important in biomedicine and environmental monitoring. Using fiber optic technology as a sensing element in biosensors offers low cost, high sensitivity, chemical inertness, and immunity to electromagnetic interference. Optical fiber sensors can be used in in vivo applications and multiplexed to detect several targets simultaneously. Certain configurations of optical fiber technology allow the detection of analytes in a label-free manner. This review aims to discuss recent advances in label-free optical fiber biosensors from a technological and application standpoint. First, modern technologies used to build label-free optical fiber-based sensors will be discussed. Then, current applications where these technologies are applied are elucidated. Namely, examples of detecting soluble cancer biomarkers, hormones, viruses, bacteria, and cells are presented.

Functionalized optical fiber ball-shaped biosensor for label-free, low-limit detection of IL-8 protein.

Detection of biomarkers for tracking disease progression is becoming increasingly important in biomedicine. Using saliva as a diagnostic sample appears to be a safe, cost-effective, and non-invasive approach. Salivary interleukin-8 levels demonstrate specific changes associated with diseases such as obstructive pulmonary disease, squamous cell carcinoma, oral cancer, and breast cancer. Traditional protein detection methods, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), mass spectrometry, and Western blot are often expensive, complex, and time-consuming. In this study, an optical fiber-based biosensor was developed to detect salivary IL-8 protein in a label-free manner. The biosensor was able to achieve an ultra-low limit detection of 0.91 fM. Moreover, the tested concentration range was wide: from 273 aM to 59 fM. As a proof-of-concept for detecting the protein in real clinical samples, the detection was carried out in artificial saliva. It was possible to achieve high sensitivity for the target protein and minimal signal alterations for the control proteins.

Spatial-Division Multiplexing Approach for Simultaneous Detection of Fiber-Optic Ball Resonator Sensors: Applications for Refractometers and Biosensors.

Fiber-optic ball resonators are an attractive technology for refractive index (RI) sensing and optical biosensing, as they have good sensitivity and allow for a rapid and repeatable manufacturing process. An important feature for modern biosensing devices is the multiplexing capacity, which allows for interrogating multiple sensors (potentially, with different functionalization methods) simultaneously, by a single analyzer. In this work, we report a multiplexing method for ball resonators, which is based on a spatial-division multiplexing approach. The method is validated on four ball resonator devices, experimentally evaluating both the cross-talk and the spectral shape influence of one sensor on another. We show that the multiplexing approach is highly efficient and that a sensing network with an arbitrary number of ball resonators can be designed with reasonable penalties for the sensing capabilities. Furthermore, we validate this concept in a four-sensor multiplexing configuration, for the simultaneous detection of two different cancer biomarkers across a widespread range of concentrations.

Ultra-wide, attomolar-level limit detection of CD44 biomarker with a silanized optical fiber biosensor.

Measuring cancer biomarkers at ultralow detection limit and high sensitivity could be a promising tool for early diagnosis, monitoring treatment and post-treatment recurrence. Soluble CD44 is a promising diagnostic and prognostic biomarker in several types of cancer including gastric, colon and breast cancer. Several highly sensitive biosensors have been built to measure this important biomarker. However, they did not reach attomolar level of detection. The aim of this work was to build a biosensor capable of detecting CD44 concentrations down to attomolar (aM) level while measuring it in a wide concentration range. Herein, we demonstrate a biosensor that offers 4 key advantages over existing platforms for CD44 detection: 1) detection of CD44 was carried out in a diluted serum down to attomolar level (4.68 aM) which is about 6 orders of magnitude lower than that of a traditional ELISA; 2) fabrication of the sensor is done in a fast way using inexpensive materials making it a disposable fiber optic biosensor; 3) detection of CD44 was performed in a wide dynamic range previously not shown in other similar biosensors; 4) a proof-of-concept experiment was performed using the biosensor to embed it in a catheter to measure the protein in flow conditions.

Optical Fiber Ball Resonator Sensor Spectral Interrogation through Undersampled KLT: Application to Refractive Index Sensing and Cancer Biomarker Biosensing.

Optical fiber ball resonators based on single-mode fibers in the infrared range are an emerging technology for refractive index sensing and biosensing. These devices are easy and rapid to fabricate using a CO2 laser splicer and yield a very low finesse reflection spectrum with a quasi-random pattern. In addition, they can be functionalized for biosensing by using a thin-film sputtering method. A common problem of this type of device is that the spectral response is substantially unknown, and poorly correlated with the size and shape of the spherical device. In this work, we propose a detection method based on Karhunen-Loeve transform (KLT), applied to the undersampled spectrum measured by an optical backscatter reflectometer. We show that this method correctly detects the response of the ball resonator in any working condition, without prior knowledge of the sensor under interrogation. First, this method for refractive index sensing of a gold-coated resonator is applied, showing 1594 RIU-1 sensitivity; then, this concept is extended to a biofunctionalized ball resonator, detecting CD44 cancer biomarker concentration with a picomolar-level limit of detection (19.7 pM) and high specificity (30-41%).

Label-free fiber-optic spherical tip biosensor to enable picomolar-level detection of CD44 protein.

Increased level of CD44 protein in serum is observed in several cancers and is associated with tumor burden and metastasis. Current clinically used detection methods of this protein are time-consuming and use labeled reagents for analysis. Therefore exploring new label-free and fast methods for its quantification including its detection in situ is of importance. This study reports the first optical fiber biosensor for CD44 protein detection, based on a spherical fiber optic tip device. The sensor is easily fabricated from an inexpensive material (single-mode fiber widely used in telecommunication) in a fast and robust manner through a CO2 laser splicer. The fabricated sensor responded to refractive index change with a sensitivity of 95.76 dB/RIU. The spherical tip was further functionalized with anti-CD44 antibodies to develop a biosensor and each step of functionalization was verified by an atomic force microscope. The biosensor detected a target of interest with an achieved limit of detection of 17 pM with only minor signal change to two control proteins. Most importantly, concentrations tested in this work are very broad and are within the clinically relevant concentration range. Moreover, the configuration of the proposed biosensor allows its potential incorporation into an in situ system for quantitative detection of this biomarker in a clinical setting.

Optimizing Silanization to Functionalize Stainless Steel Wire: Towards Breast Cancer Stem Cell Isolation.

Chemically modified metal surfaces have been used to recognize and capture specific cell types and biomolecules. In this work, stainless steel wires were functionalized with aptamers against breast cancer stem cell markers. Stainless steel wires were first electropolished and silanized via electrodeposition. Aptamers were then attached to the silanized surface through a cross-linker. The functionalized wires were able to capture the target cells in an in vitro test. During surface modification steps, wires were analyzed by atomic force microscopy, cyclic voltammetry, scanning electron and fluorescence microscopy to determine their surface composition and morphology. Optimized conditions of silanization (applied potential, solution pH, heat treatment temperature) for obtaining an aptamer-functionalized wire were determined in this work together with the use of several surface characterization techniques suitable for small-sized and circular wires. These modified wires have potential applications for the in vivo capture of target cells in blood flow, since their small size allows their insertion as standard guidewires in biomedical devices.

Functionalized etched tilted fiber Bragg grating aptasensor for label-free protein detection.

An aptasensor based on etched tilted fiber Bragg grating (eTFBG) is developed on a single-mode optical fiber targeting biomolecule detection. TFBGs were chemically etched using hydrofluoric acid (HF) to partially remove the fiber cladding. The sensor response was coarsely interrogated, resulting on a sensitivity increase from 1.25 nm/RIU (refractive index unit) at the beginning of the process, up to 23.38 nm/RIU at the end of the etching, for a RI range from 1.3418 to 1.4419 RIU. The proposed aptasensor showed improved RI sensitivity as compared to the unetched TFBG, without requiring metal depositions on the fiber surface or polarization control during the measurements. The proposed sensor was tested for the detection of thrombin-aptamer interactions based on silane-coupling surface chemistry, with thrombin concentrations ranging from 2.5 to 40 nM. Functionalized eTFBGs provided a competitive platform for biochemical interaction measurements, showing sensitivity values ranging from 2.3 to 3.3 p.m./nM for the particular case of thrombin detection.

Etched Fiber Bragg Grating Biosensor Functionalized with Aptamers for Detection of Thrombin.

A biosensor based on an etched Fiber Bragg Grating (EFBG) for thrombin detection is reported. The sensing system is based on a Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) with a Bragg wavelength of 1550 nm, wet-etched in hydrofluoric acid (HF) for ~27 min, to achieve sensitivity to a refractive index (RI) of 17.4 nm/RIU (refractive index unit). Subsequently, in order to perform a selective detection of thrombin, the EFBG has been functionalized with silane-coupling agent 3-(aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES) and a cross-linker, glutaraldehyde, for the immobilization of thrombin-binding aptamer. The biosensor has been validated for thrombin detection in concentrations ranging from 10 nM to 80 nM. The proposed sensor presents advantages with respect to other sensor configurations, based on plasmonic resonant tilted FBG or Long Period Grating (LPG), for thrombin detection. Firstly, fabricating an EFBG only requires chemical etching. Moreover, the functionalization method used in this study (silanization) allows the avoidance of complicated and expensive fabrications, such as thin film sputtering or chemical vapor deposition. Due to their characteristics, EFBG sensors are easier to multiplex and can be used in vivo. This opens new possibilities for the detection of thrombin in clinical settings.

Fiber optic refractive index sensors through spectral detection of Rayleigh backscattering in a chemically etched MgO-based nanoparticle-doped fiber.

We demonstrate and experimentally validate a fiber optic refractive index (RI) sensor obtained by simply etching a high-scattering MgO-based nanoparticle-doped single-mode fiber in hydrofluoric acid (HF). The fiber has 32.3 dB stronger Rayleigh scattering than a standard fiber, allowing a detection of scattering spectral signatures with an optical backscatter reflectometer, even when the core is exposed to the outer RI. The obtained sensitivity is 1.53 nm/RIU (RI units), measured by correlating the scattering spectra. We prove the possibility of implementing a distributed RI detection (seven locations spaced by 1 mm). The fabrication method for this RI sensor is simplified, since it simply requires etching in an HF bath, without the need of inscribing reflective elements or fabricating microstructures in the fiber.

Wavelet-Based Demodulation of Multimode Etched Fiber Bragg Grating Refractive Index Sensor.

Etched fiber Bragg grating (EFBG)-based sensors are used as evanescent field sensors for refractive index detection. When the fiber thickness is thin and the refractive index sensitivity increases, the number of propagating modes increases, resulting in a spectral enlargement that complicates the interrogation of the sensor. In this work, we present a method to analyze the spectrum of a multimode etched fiber Bragg grating (MMEFBG) in the wavelet domain, which analyzes the amount of spectral density independently from the peak reflectivity value. The proposed interrogation method permits defining the integral of the spectral density as a novel and unconventional estimator. With respect to the conventional estimators based on wavelength shift, this estimator can better exploit the larger amount of information given by the spectral enlargement typical of multimode behavior. Results were obtained by etching an MMEFBG in hydrofluoric acid and using water/sucrose mixtures to evaluate the refractive index sensitivity, validating the interrogation method.

Fabrication and Interrogation of Refractive Index Biosensors Based on Etched Fiber Bragg Grating (EFBG).

We discuss the fabrication and interrogation of a fiber-optic refractive index sensors based on wet-etched fiber Bragg grating (EFBG). The fabrication is based on chemical etching of an FBG through an HF-free etching solution (ammonium fluoride and sulfuric acid), which progressively depletes the fiber cladding exposing the core to the outer medium. Microscope inspection of the fiber and real-time detection of the Bragg wavelength allow controlling the sensitivity. The proposed interrogation method is based on a spline interpolation, that measures the change of Bragg wavelength when the FBG is exposed to variations of the refractive index in the surrounding medium. An experimental validation has been carried out, for small refractive index variations (up to $1.85\times 10^{-3}$ RIU), in order to verify the progressive change of sensitivity through fiber etching. The proposed EFBG sensing unit is a building block for functionalized fiber optic biosensors.

Surface modification of stainless steel for biomedical applications: Revisiting a century-old material.

Stainless steel (SS) has been widely used as a material for fabricating cardiovascular stents/valves, orthopedic prosthesis, and other devices and implants used in biomedicine due to its malleability and resistance to corrosion and fatigue. Despite its good mechanical properties, SS (as other metals) lacks biofunctionality. To be successfully used as a biomaterial, SS must be made resistant to the biological environment by increasing its anti-fouling properties, preventing biofilm formation (passive surface modification), and imparting functionality for eluting a specific drug or capturing selected cells (active surface modification); these features depend on the final application. Various physico-chemical techniques, including plasma vapor deposition, electrochemical treatment, and attachment of different linkers that add functional groups, are used to obtain SS with increased corrosion resistance, improved osseointegration capabilities, added hemocompatibility, and enhanced antibacterial properties. Existing literature on this topic is extensive and has not been covered in an integrated way in previous reviews. This review aims to fill this gap, by surveying the literature on SS surface modification methods, as well as modification routes tailored for specific biomedical applications. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Stainless steel (SS) is widely used in many biomedical applications including bone implants and cardiovascular stents due to its good mechanical properties, biocompatibility and low price. Surface modification allows improving its characteristics without compromising its important bulk properties. SS with improved blood compatibility (blood contacting implants), enhanced ability to resist bacterial infection (long-term devices), better integration with a tissue (bone implants) are examples of successful SS surface modifications. Existing literature on this topic is extensive and has not been covered in an integrated way in previous reviews. This review paper aims to fill this gap, by surveying the literature on SS surface modification methods, as well as to provide guidance for selecting appropriate modification routes tailored for specific biomedical applications.

Partially etched chirped fiber Bragg grating (pECFBG) for joint temperature, thermal profile, and refractive index detection.

In this work, a partially etched chirped fiber Bragg grating (pECFBG) is introduced, as a compact sensor for multi-parametric measurement of temperature, thermal gradients over the active length, and refractive index. The sensor is fabricated by wet-etching a portion of a 14-mm linearly chirped FBG with linear chirp profile. The resulting device has two active areas: the unetched part of the grating (2 mm) can be used either as a uniform temperature sensor, or to detect thermal gradients experienced through the grating length by means of a spectral reconstruction technique; the etched part (12 mm), besides having a similar thermal sensitivity, is exposed to refractive index sensing through the introduction of a sensitivity to external refractive index. Overall, the pECFBG structure behaves as a compact sensor with multi-parameter capability, that can both measure temperature and refractive index on the same grating, but also spatially resolve temperature detection through the grating section. The results have been validated through both a model and experimental setup, showing that the mutual correlation algorithm applied to different spectral parts of the grating is able to discriminate between uniform and gradient-shaped temperature profiles, and refractive index changes.

Selection, characterization, and application of DNA aptamers for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis secreted protein MPT64.

Rapid detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), an etiological agent of tuberculosis (TB), is important for global control of this disease. Aptamers have emerged as a potential rival for antibodies in therapeutics, diagnostics and biosensing due to their inherent characteristics. The aim of the current study was to select and characterize single-stranded DNA aptamers against MPT64 protein, one of the predominant secreted proteins of Mtb pathogen. Aptamers specific to MPT64 protein were selected in vitro using systematic evolution of ligands through exponential enrichment (SELEX) method. The selection was started with a pool of ssDNA library with randomized 40-nucleotide region. A total of 10 cycles were performed and seventeen aptamers with unique sequences were identified by sequencing. Dot Blot analysis was performed to monitor the SELEX process and to conduct the preliminary tests on the affinity and specificity of aptamers. Enzyme linked oligonucleotide assay (ELONA) showed that most of the aptamers were specific to the MPT64 protein with a linear correlation of R2 = 0.94 for the most selective. Using Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR), dissociation equilibrium constant KD of 8.92 nM was obtained. Bioinformatics analysis of the most specific aptamers revealed the existence of a conserved as well as distinct sequences and possible binding site on MPT64. The specificity was determined by testing non-target ESAT-6 and CFP-10. Negligible cross-reactivity confirmed the high specificity of the selected aptamer. The selected aptamer was further tested on clinical sputum samples using ELONA and had sensitivity and specificity of 91.3% and 90%, respectively. Microscopy, culture positivity and nucleotide amplification methods were used as reference standards. The aptamers studied could be further used for the development of medical diagnostic tools and detection assays for Mtb.

Disruption of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL by viral proteins as a possible cause of cancer.

The Bcl proteins play a critical role in apoptosis, as mutations in family members interfere with normal programmed cell death. Such events can cause cell transformation, potentially leading to cancer. Recent discoveries indicate that some viral proteins interfere with Bcl proteins either directly or indirectly; however, these data have not been systematically described. Some viruses encode proteins that reprogramme host cellular signalling pathways controlling cell differentiation, proliferation, genomic integrity, cell death, and immune system recognition. This review analyses and summarises the existing data and discusses how viral proteins interfere with normal pro- and anti-apoptotic functions of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL. Particularly, this article focuses on how viral proteins, such as Herpesviruses, HTLV-1, HPV and HCV, block apoptosis and how accumulation of such interference predisposes cancer development. Finally, we discuss possible ways to prevent and treat cancers using a combination of traditional therapies and antiviral preparations that are effective against these viruses.

Tuberculosis diagnosis using immunodominant, secreted antigens of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major public health concern in most low-income countries. Hence, rapid and sensitive TB diagnostics play an important role in detecting and preventing the disease. In addition to established diagnostic methods, several new approaches have been reported. Some techniques are simple but time-consuming, while others require complex instrumentation. One prominent and readily available approach is to detect proteins that Mycobacterium tuberculosis secretes, such as Mpt64, the 6-kDa early secreted antigenic target (Esat6), the 10-kDa culture filtrate protein (Cfp10), and the antigen 85 (Ag85) complex. Although their functions are not fully understood, a growing body of molecular evidence implicates them in M. tuberculosis virulence. Currently these biomarkers are either being used or investigated for use in skin patch tests, biosensor analyses, and immunochromatographic, immunohistochemical, polymerase chain reaction-based, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. This review provides a comprehensive discussion of the roles these immunodominant antigens play in M. tuberculosis pathogenesis and compares diagnostic methods based on the detection of these proteins with more established tests for TB.