Comparison of Pediatric Trauma Scoring Tools That Incorporate Neurological Status for Trauma Team Activation.

BACKGROUND: Two novel pediatric trauma scoring tools, SIPAB+ (defined as elevated SIPA with Glasgow Coma Scale ≤8) and rSIG (reverse Shock Index multiplied by Glasgow Coma Scale and defined as abnormal using cutoffs for early outcomes), which combine neurological status with Pediatric Age-Adjusted Shock Index (SIPA), have been shown to predict early trauma outcomes better than SIPA alone. We sought to determine if one more accurately identifies children in need of trauma team activation. METHODS: Patients 1 to 18 years old from the 2014-2018 Pediatric Trauma Quality Improvement Program database were included. Sensitivity and specificity for SIPAB+ and rSIG were calculated for components of pediatric trauma team activation, based on criteria standard definitions. RESULTS: There were 11,426 patients (1.9%) classified as SIPAB+ and 235,672 (39.0%) as having an abnormal rSIG. SIPAB+ was consistently more specific, with specificities exceeding 98%, but its sensitivity was poor (<30%) for all outcomes. In comparison, rSIG was a more sensitive tool, with sensitivities exceeding 60%, and specificity values exceeded 60% for all outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Trauma systems must determine their priorities to decide how best to incorporate SIPAB+ and rSIG into practice, although rSIG may be preferred as it balances both sensitivity and specificity. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

Establishing a core outcome set for blunt cerebrovascular injury: an EAST modified Delphi method consensus study.

Objectives: Our understanding of blunt cerebrovascular injury (BCVI) has changed significantly in recent decades, resulting in a heterogeneous description of diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes in the literature which is not suitable for data pooling. Therefore, we endeavored to develop a core outcome set (COS) to help guide future BCVI research and overcome the challenge of heterogeneous outcomes reporting. Methods: After a review of landmark BCVI publications, content experts were invited to participate in a modified Delphi study. For round 1, participants submitted a list of proposed core outcomes. In subsequent rounds, panelists used a 9-point Likert scale to score the proposed outcomes for importance. Core outcomes consensus was defined as >70% of scores receiving 7 to 9 and <15% of scores receiving 1 to 3. Feedback and aggregate data were shared between rounds, and four rounds of deliberation were performed to re-evaluate the variables not achieving predefined consensus criteria. Results: From an initial panel of 15 experts, 12 (80%) completed all rounds. A total of 22 items were considered, with 9 items achieving consensus for inclusion as core outcomes: incidence of postadmission symptom onset, overall stroke incidence, stroke incidence stratified by type and by treatment category, stroke incidence prior to treatment initiation, time to stroke, overall mortality, bleeding complications, and injury progression on radiographic follow-up. The panel further identified four non-outcome items of high importance for reporting: time to BCVI diagnosis, use of standardized screening tool, duration of treatment, and type of therapy used. Conclusion: Through a well-accepted iterative survey consensus process, content experts have defined a COS to guide future research on BCVI. This COS will be a valuable tool for researchers seeking to perform new BCVI research and will allow future projects to generate data suitable for pooled statistical analysis with enhanced statistical power. Level of evidence: Level IV.

Assessing and managing frailty in emergency laparotomy: a WSES position paper.

Many countries are facing an aging population. As people live longer, surgeons face the prospect of operating on increasingly older patients. Traditional teaching is that with older age, these patients face an increased risk of mortality and morbidity, even to a level deemed too prohibitive for surgery. However, this is not always true. An active 90-year-old patient can be much fitter than an overweight, sedentary 65-year-old patient with comorbidities. Recent literature shows that frailty-an age-related cumulative decline in multiple physiological systems, is therefore a better predictor of mortality and morbidity than chronological age alone. Despite recognition of frailty as an important tool in identifying vulnerable surgical patients, many surgeons still shun objective tools. The aim of this position paper was to perform a review of the existing literature and to provide recommendations on emergency laparotomy and in frail patients. This position paper was reviewed by an international expert panel composed of 37 experts who were asked to critically revise the manuscript and position statements. The position paper was conducted according to the WSES methodology. We shall present the derived statements upon which a consensus was reached, specifying the quality of the supporting evidence and suggesting future research directions.

Use of prehospital reverse shock index times Glasgow Coma Scale to identify children who require the most immediate trauma care.

BACKGROUND: Appropriate prehospital trauma triage ensures transport of children to facilities that provide specialized trauma care. There are currently no objective and generalizable scoring tool for emergency medical services to facilitate such decisions. An abnormal reverse shock index times Glasgow Coma Scale (rSIG), which is calculated using readily available parameters, has been shown to be associated with severely injured children. This study sought to determine if rSIG could be used in the prehospital setting to identify injured children who require the highest levels of care. METHODS: Patients (1-18 years old) transferred from the scene to a level 1 pediatric trauma center from 2010 to 2020 with complete prehospital and emergency department vital signs, and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores were included. Reverse shock index times GCS was calculated as previously described ((systolic blood pressure/heart rate) × GCS), and the following cutoffs were used: ≤13.1, ≤16.5, and ≤20.1 for 1- to 6-, 7- to 12-, and 13- to 18-year-old patients, respectively. Trauma activation level and clinical outcomes upon arrival to the pediatric trauma center were collected. RESULTS: There were 247 patients included in the analysis; 66.0% (163) had an abnormal prehospital rSIG. Patients with an abnormal rSIG had a higher rate of highest-level trauma activation compared with those with a normal rSIG (38.7% vs. 20.2%, p = 0.013). Patients with an abnormal prehospital rSIG also had higher rates of intubation (28.8% vs. 9.52%, p < 0.001), intracranial pressure monitor (9.20 vs. 1.19%, p = 0.032), need for blood (19.6% vs. 8.33%, p = 0.034), laparotomy (7.98% vs. 1.19%, p = 0.039), and intensive care unit admission (54.6% vs. 40.5%, p = 0.049). CONCLUSION: Reverse shock index times GCS may assist emergency medical service providers in early identification and triage of severely injured children. An abnormal rSIG in the emergency department is associated with higher rates of intubation, need for blood transfusion, intracranial pressure monitoring, laparotomy, and intensive care unit admission. Use of this metric may help to speed the identification, care, and treatment of any injured child. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic and Epidemiological; Level IV.

Using the Social Vulnerability Index to Examine Disparities in Surgical Pediatric Trauma Patients.

INTRODUCTION: The Social Vulnerability Index (SVI) is a composite measure geocoded at the census tract level that has the potential to identify target populations at risk for postoperative surgical morbidity. We applied the SVI to examine demographics and disparities in surgical outcomes in pediatric trauma patients. METHODS: Surgical pediatric trauma patients (≤18-year-old) at our institution from 2010 to 2020 were included. Patients were geocoded to identify their census tract of residence and estimated SVI and were stratified into high (≥70th percentile) and low (<70th percentile) SVI groups. Demographics, clinical data, and outcomes were compared using Kruskal-Wallis and Fisher's exact tests. RESULTS: Of 355 patients included, 21.4% had high SVI percentiles while 78.6% had low SVI percentiles. Patients with high SVI were more likely to have government insurance (73.7% versus 37.2%, P < 0.001), be of minority race (49.8% versus 19.1%, P < 0.001), present with penetrating injuries (32.9% versus 19.7%, P = 0.007), and develop surgical site infections (3.9% versus 0.4%, P = 0.03) compared to the low SVI group. CONCLUSIONS: The SVI has the potential to examine health care disparities in pediatric trauma patients and identify discrete at-risk target populations for preventative resources allocation and intervention. Future studies are necessary to determine the utility of this tool in additional pediatric cohorts.

Use of reverse shock index times Glasgow coma scale (rSIG) to determine need for transfer of pediatric trauma patients to higher levels of care.

INTRODUCTION: Most children in the US live more than one hour from a Level 1 PTC. The Need For Trauma Intervention (NFTI) score was developed to assess trauma triage criteria and is dependent on whether someone requires one of six urgent interventions (NFTI+). We sought to determine if a novel scoring tool, rSIG, could predict NFTI and facilitate the transfer decision making process. METHODS: Children 1-18 years old transferred to our level 1 PTC from 2010 - 2020 with complete vital signs and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score at the transferring facility were included. rSIG was calculated as previously described [(SBP/HR) x GCS], and the following cutoffs were used for each age group: ≤13.1, ≤16.5, and ≤20.1 for 1-6, 7-12, and 13-18 years, respectively. Clinical outcomes upon arrival to the PTC were collected to determine if patients met any NTFI criteria. RESULTS: A total of 456 patients met inclusion criteria. The proportion of patients with an abnormal rSIG was 60.1% (274) and 37.0% (169) were NFTI+. Patients with an abnormal rSIG had an odds ratio of 6.18 (95% CI: 3.90, 10.07), p < 0.001 of being NFTI+ compared to those with a normal rSIG. CONCLUSION: Children with an abnormal rSIG are more likely to be NFTI+ and require higher levels of care, indicating this scoring tool can identify pediatric trauma patients who may benefit from expedited transfer. Incorporating rSIG into initial evaluation and triage of traumatically injured children may expedite the transfer decision making process and limit delays in transport to a PTC. TYPE OF STUDY: Retrospective Comparative Study LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

Blood Transfusion is Associated With Adverse Outcomes in Pediatric Solid Tumor Oncology Patients Following Tumor Resection.

BACKGROUND: Packed red blood cell (PRBC) transfusion is a lifesaving intervention that also has proinflammatory and immunosuppressive effects. Adults with a malignancy who receive PRBC transfusion have increased rates of infection, tumor recurrence, and decreased survival. The effect of PRBC transfusion among children with solid tumors is unknown. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of all children who underwent operative resection of a solid tumor malignancy. Data collected included demographic information, location of operation, nadir hemoglobin, and any PRBC transfusion within 30 days of tumor resection. RESULTS: Three hundred sixty children underwent tumor resection at our institution between 2002 and 2013; 194 (54%) received a perioperative blood transfusion. After adjusting for stage at diagnosis, tumor location, preoperative chemotherapy and nadir hemoglobin, blood transfusion was associated with a higher rate of postoperative infectious complications, shorter disease-free interval, and a higher rate of tumor recurrence. Each additional transfused unit increased the risk of postoperative infection (odds ratio 3.83; 95% confidence interval 1.21, 14.22, P =0.031). CONCLUSIONS: Among children with solid tumor malignancies, PRBC transfusion within 30 days of operation is associated with higher rates of postoperative infection. If transfusion becomes necessary, single unit increments should be transfused. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

Follow-up strategies for patients with splenic trauma managed non-operatively: the 2022 World Society of Emergency Surgery consensus document.

BACKGROUND: In 2017, the World Society of Emergency Surgery published its guidelines for the management of adult and pediatric patients with splenic trauma. Several issues regarding the follow-up of patients with splenic injuries treated with NOM remained unsolved. METHODS: Using a modified Delphi method, we sought to explore ongoing areas of controversy in the NOM of splenic trauma and reach a consensus among a group of 48 international experts from five continents (Africa, Europe, Asia, Oceania, America) concerning optimal follow-up strategies in patients with splenic injuries treated with NOM. RESULTS: Consensus was reached on eleven clinical research questions and 28 recommendations with an agreement rate ≥ 80%. Mobilization after 24 h in low-grade splenic trauma patients (WSES Class I, AAST Grades I-II) was suggested, while in patients with high-grade splenic injuries (WSES Classes II-III, AAST Grades III-V), if no other contraindications to early mobilization exist, safe mobilization of the patient when three successive hemoglobins 8 h apart after the first are within 10% of each other was considered safe according to the panel. The panel suggests adult patients to be admitted to hospital for 1 day (for low-grade splenic injuries-WSES Class I, AAST Grades I-II) to 3 days (for high-grade splenic injuries-WSES Classes II-III, AAST Grades III-V), with those with high-grade injuries requiring admission to a monitored setting. In the absence of specific complications, the panel suggests DVT and VTE prophylaxis with LMWH to be started within 48-72 h from hospital admission. The panel suggests splenic artery embolization (SAE) as the first-line intervention in patients with hemodynamic stability and arterial blush on CT scan, irrespective of injury grade. Regarding patients with WSES Class II blunt splenic injuries (AAST Grade III) without contrast extravasation, a low threshold for SAE has been suggested in the presence of risk factors for NOM failure. The panel also suggested angiography and eventual SAE in all hemodynamically stable adult patients with WSES Class III injuries (AAST Grades IV-V), even in the absence of CT blush, especially when concomitant surgery that requires change of position is needed. Follow-up imaging with contrast-enhanced ultrasound/CT scan in 48-72 h post-admission of trauma in splenic injuries WSES Class II (AAST Grade III) or higher treated with NOM was considered the best strategy for timely detection of vascular complications. CONCLUSION: This consensus document could help guide future prospective studies aiming at validating the suggested strategies through the implementation of prospective trauma databases and the subsequent production of internationally endorsed guidelines on the issue.

Individual and neighborhood level characteristics of pediatric firearm injuries presenting at trauma centers in Colorado.

BACKGROUND: Firearm injuries are the second leading cause of death among children and adolescents in the United States. In Colorado, firearm injuries have surpassed motor vehicle accidents as the leading cause of death in youth. Local research is necessary to characterize risk factors associated with pediatric firearm injuries. We sought to categorize demographics, neighborhood characteristics, and trends in pediatric firearm injuries in Colorado. METHODS: A review of pediatric firearm-injured patients (18 years or younger) evaluated at four trauma centers in Colorado from 2008 to 2019 was conducted. Clinical information, injury intent, and demographics were collected. Patient addresses were geocoded to census tracts to obtain neighborhood-level characteristics. Annual trends in firearm injury incidence per trauma evaluation were analyzed using regression modeling. RESULTS: There were 446 firearm injuries during the study period. The median age was 16 years, and 87.0% were male. Assault was the most common injury intent (64.6%), and 92.0% of patients were from metropolitan (rural-urban continuum code 1-3) areas. Neighborhoods associated with firearm injuries were characterized by lower median household income ($47,112 vs. $63,443, p < 0.001) and higher levels of poverty (19.1% vs. 9.4%, p < 0.001) compared with median state levels. There was a 14.0% increase in firearm injuries compared with overall trauma evaluations for each year in the study period (incidence rate ratio, 1.14; 95% confidence interval, 1.08-1.20; p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The incidence of pediatric firearm injuries increased significantly from 2008 to 2019 compared with overall trauma evaluations in Colorado. Children and adolescents who live in more socially vulnerable neighborhoods are disproportionately impacted, and injury prevention resources should be focused on these communities. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic and Epidemiolgic; Level III.

Discreet Values of Shock Index Pediatric Age-Adjusted (SIPA) to Predict Intervention in Children With Blunt Organ Injuries.

INTRODUCTION: Elevated shock index pediatric age-adjusted (SIPA) has been shown to be associated with the need for both blood transfusion and intervention in pediatric patients with blunt liver and spleen injuries (BLSI). SIPA has traditionally been used as a binary value, which can be classified as elevated or normal, and this study aimed to assess if discreet values above SIPA cutoffs are associated with an increased probability of blood transfusion and failure of nonoperative management (NOM) in bluntly injured children. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Children aged 1-18 y with any BLSI admitted to a Level-1 pediatric trauma center between 2009 and 2020 were analyzed. Blood transfusion was defined as any transfusion within 24 h of arrival, and failure of NOM was defined as any abdominal operation or angioembolization procedure for hemorrhage control. The probabilities of receiving a blood transfusion or failure of NOM were calculated at different increments of 0.1. RESULTS: There were 493 patients included in the analysis. The odds of requiring blood transfusion increased by 1.67 (95% CI 1.49, 1.90) for each 0.1 unit increase of SIPA (P < 0.001). A similar trend was seen initially for the probability of failure of nonoperative management, but beyond a threshold, increasing values were not associated with failure of NOM. On subanalysis excluding patients with a head injury, increased 0.1 increments were associated with increased odds for both interventions. CONCLUSIONS: Discreet values above age-related SIPA cutoffs are correlated with higher probabilities of blood transfusion in pediatric patients with BLSI and failure of NOM in those without head injury. The use of discreet values may provide clinicians with more granular information about which patients require increased resources upon presentation.

Adolescent blunt solid organ injury: Differences in management strategies and outcomes between pediatric and adult trauma centers.

BACKGROUND: Adolescents with blunt solid organ injuries (BSOI) are cared for at both pediatric trauma centers (PTC) and adult trauma centers (ATC). Over the past decade, treatment strategies have shifted towards non-operative management with reported favorable outcomes. The aim of this study was to compare management strategies and outcomes between PTC and ATC. METHODS: We queried the 2016-2018 Trauma Quality Improvement Program (TQIP) datasets to identify adolescents between the ages of 16 and 19 with BSOI. Characteristics were stratified by center type (pediatric or adult) for comparative analyses. Separate logistic regressions were used to assess the association of hospital type, location of injury, age, gender, weight, Glascow Coma Score (GCS), Injury Severity Score (ISS), and intensive care unit (ICU) admissions for outcomes of interest. RESULTS: Among the 3,011,310 patients enrolled in the 2016-2018 TQIP datasets, 106,892 (3.5%) had a BSOI ICD9/10 code. Of those, 9,193 (8.6%) were between 16 and 19 years of age and included in this analysis. Within this cohort, 6,073 (66.1%) were managed at an ATC and 3,120 (33.9%) were managed at a PTC. While statistically different, there were no clinically relevant differences for age, weight, and sex between groups. A significantly higher ISS and lower GCS score were observed among those admitted to ATC compared to PTC. ICU admissions were more frequent at ATC. Number of blood transfusions by 4 h after presentation were also higher among those admitted to an ATC. Despite a lower ISS and higher GCS at presentation, mortality was higher among those treated at a PTC with an odds ratio (95% confidence interval) of 2.42 (1.31-4.53). After excluding adolescents with a traumatic brain injury, a common cause of mortality among adolescent trauma patients, these differences in outcomes persisted. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that adolescents with BSOI managed at a PTC are less likely to receive blood transfusions by 4 h of admission or be admitted to the ICU than those managed at an ATC. However, this more conservative approach may come at the expense of higher overall mortality. Further work is needed to understand these differences and determine if PTC need to be more aggressive in managing BSOI.

The use of ultrasound in establishing COVID-19 infection as part of a trauma evaluation.

PURPOSE: The use of lung ultrasound for diagnosis of COVID-19 has emerged during the pandemic as a beneficial diagnostic modality due to its rapid availability, bedside use, and lack of radiation. This study aimed to determine if routine ultrasound (US) imaging of the lungs of trauma patients with COVID-19 infections who undergo extended focused assessment with sonography for trauma (EFAST) correlates with computed tomography (CT) imaging and X-ray findings, as previously reported in other populations. METHODS: This was a prospective, observational feasibility study performed at two level 1 trauma centers. US, CT, and X-ray imaging were retrospectively reviewed by a surgical trainee and a board-certified radiologist to determine any correlation of imaging findings in patients with active COVID-19 infection. RESULTS: There were 53 patients with lung US images from EFAST available for evaluation and COVID-19 testing. The overall COVID-19 positivity rate was 7.5%. COVID-19 infection was accurately identified by one patient on US by the trainee, but there was a 15.1% false-positive rate for infection based on the radiologist examination. CONCLUSIONS: Evaluation of the lung during EFAST cannot be used in the trauma setting to identify patients with active COVID-19 infection or to stratify patients as high or low risk of infection. This is likely due to differences in lung imaging technique and the presence of concomitant thoracic injury.

Pediatric cardiac and great vessel injuries: Recent experience at two pediatric trauma centers.

BACKGROUND: Cardiac injuries are rare in pediatric trauma patients and data regarding this type of injury is limited. There is even less data on traumatic great vessel injuries. This study sought to examine and summarize our recent experience at two pediatric trauma centers, which serve a major metropolitan area and large geographic region. METHODS: This is a retrospective review of pediatric (<18 years) patients who sustained cardiac or great vessel injuries and were managed at a Level 1 or Level 2 pediatric trauma center between January 1, 2010 and June 30, 2020. Demographic and clinical characteristics were compared using two-sample t-tests, Wilcoxon Rank-Sum tests, Fisher's exact tests and chi-squared tests for continuous, non-normally distributed continuous, and categorical variables, respectively. RESULTS: A total of 53 patients sustained cardiac and/or great vessel injuries. Of these, 37 (70%) sustained cardiac, 9 (17%) sustained great vessel, and 7 (13%) sustained both types of injuries. The median age was 14.9 years and 74% (n = 39) were male. The median injury severity score (ISS) was 36.0 and the injury mechanism was blunt in 31 (58%) patients. The most common cardiac and great vessel injury locations were left ventricle (n = 9) and thoracic aorta (n = 11), respectively. The overall mortality rate was 53% (n = 28). Mortality was highest among those who sustained great vessel injuries (89%). CONCLUSIONS: There is substantial heterogeneity in cardiac and great vessel injuries. Regardless, they are highly morbid and lethal, despite aggressive surgical and catheter-based interventions.

Not as simple as ABC: Tools to trigger massive transfusion in pediatric trauma.

BACKGROUND: Early and accurate identification of pediatric trauma patients who will receive massive transfusion (MT) is not well established. We developed the ABCD (defined as penetrating mechanism, positive focused assessment with sonography for trauma, shock index, pediatric age-adjusted [SIPA], lactate, and base deficit [BD]) and BIS scores (defined as a combination of BD, international normalized ratio [INR], and SIPA) and hypothesized that the BIS score would perform best in the ability to predict the need for MT in children. METHODS: Pediatric trauma patients (≤18 years old) admitted to our trauma center between 2008 and 2019 were identified. Using a receiver operator curve, we defined cutoff points for lactate (≥3.2), BD (≤-6.9), and INR (≥1.4). ABCD scores were calculated by combining penetrating mechanism; positive focused assessment with sonography for trauma examination; SIPA; lactate; and BD. BIS scores were calculated by combining BD, INR, and SIPA. The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of each score were calculated based on receiving MT. RESULTS: Seven hundred seventy-two patients were included, of which 59 (7.6%) underwent MT. The best predictor of receiving MT was achieved by a BIS score of ≥2 that was 98% sensitive and 23% specific with an area under the curve of 0.81. The ABCD score of ≥2 was 97% sensitive and 20% specific with an area under the curve of 0.77. CONCLUSION: The BIS score, which takes into account derangements in acidosis, coagulopathy, and SIPA, is accurate and easy to perform and can be incorporated into a simple bedside screening tool for triggering MT in pediatric trauma patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic Tests or Criteria, Level IV.

Pre-hospital and emergency department shock index pediatric age-adjusted (SIPA) "cut points" to identify pediatric trauma patients at risk for massive transfusion and/or mortality.

BACKGROUND: Shock index pediatric age-adjusted (SIPA) is a validated measure to identify severely injured children. Previous literature categorized SIPA as normal or elevated, but the relationship between specific SIPA values and outcomes has not been determined. We sought to determine specific SIPA cut points in the pre-hospital and Emergency Department (ED) settings to identify patients at risk for massive transfusion (MT) and/or mortality. METHODS: Patients ≤ 18 years old admitted to our Level I pediatric trauma center following trauma activation were included. Youdin J index was used to define pre-hospital and ED SIPA cut points to identify those at risk of MT and/or mortality for the following age groups: < 1 year, 1-6 years, 7-12 years, and > 12 years old. Sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and area under the curve (AUC) were calculated to determine SIPA threshold values associated with MT and/or mortality. RESULTS: Of 1,072 patients, 6.3% (n = 68) required MT and 8.4% (n = 90) died. For predicting MT, pre-hospital SIPA cut points performed best in the > 12 year-old age group (AUC = 0.86) and ED SIPA cut points performed best in the 6-12 year-old age group (AUC = 0.87). For predicting mortality, pre-hospital (AUC = 0.78) and ED SIPA cut points (AUC = 0.84) performed best in the > 12 year-old age group. CONCLUSION: Pre-hospital and ED SIPA cut points performed better at predicting MT and/or mortality in older pediatric patients compared to very young children. Age remains an important factor when determining the validity of SIPA to predict outcomes in pediatric trauma patients. STUDY TYPE/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, Retrospective Cohort Study.

Novel tool (BIS) heralds the need for blood transfusion and/or failure of non-operative management in pediatric blunt liver and spleen injuries.

BACKGROUND: Non-operative management (NOM) is the standard of care for the majority of children with blunt liver and spleen injuries (BLSI). The shock index pediatric age-adjusted (SIPA) was previously shown to predict the need for blood transfusions in pediatric trauma patients with BLSI. We combined SIPA with base deficit (BD) and International Normalized Ratio (INR) to create the BIS score. We hypothesized that the BIS score would predict the need for blood transfusions and/or failure of NOM in pediatric trauma patients with BLSI. METHODS: Patients (≤ 18 years) who presented to our Level I pediatric trauma center with BLSI from 2009 to 2019 were identified. BIS scores were calculated by giving 1 point for each of the following: base deficit ≤ -8.8, INR ≥ 1.5, or elevated SIPA. Receiver operating characteristic curves (ROC) were generated for BIS scores ≥ 1, ≥ 2, and ≥ 3. Area under the curve (AUC), sensitivity, and specificity of each score were calculated for ability to predict need for blood transfusions and/or failure of NOM. RESULTS: Of 477 children included, 19.9% required a blood transfusion and 6.7% failed NOM. A BIS score ≥ 1 was the best predictor of the need for blood transfusions with an AUC of 0.81 and a sensitivity of 96.0%. A BIS score ≥ 1 was also the best predictor of failure of NOM with an AUC of 0.72 and a sensitivity of 97.0%. CONCLUSION: The BIS score is a highly sensitive tool that identifies pediatric patients with BLSI at risk for blood transfusions and/or failure of NOM. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III. TYPE OF STUDY: Retrospective comparative study.

A surgeon's predicament: Clinical predictors of surgery and mortality in neutropenic enterocolitis.

BACKGROUND: Neutropenic enterocolitis is uncommon but potentially life-threatening, with the cornerstone of treatment being medical management (MM), and surgical intervention reserved for clinical deterioration or bowel perforation. We hypothesized that the Shock Index Pediatric Age-Adjusted (SIPA) is elevated in patients who are at greatest risk for surgical intervention and mortality. We also sought to identify computed tomography (CT) findings associated with surgical intervention and mortality. METHODS: A single-center cancer registry was reviewed for neutropenic enterocolitis patients from 2006 -2018. Survival models compared patients with normal versus elevated SIPA throughout their hospitalizations for the time to surgical management (SM), as well as in-hospital mortality. RESULTS: Seventy-four patients with neutropenic enterocolitis were identified; 7 underwent surgery. In-hospital mortality was 12% in MM and 29% in SM; mortality among patients with elevated SIPA was 4.7 times higher compared to those with normal SIPA (95% CI: 1.1, 19.83, p = 0.04). CT findings of bowel obstruction, pneumatosis, and a greater percentage of large bowel involvement were associated with surgical intervention (all ps < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Select pre-operative CT findings were associated with need for operative management. Elevated SIPA was associated with increased mortality. Elevated SIPA in pediatric cancer patients with neutropenic enterocolitis may help to identify those with more severe disease and expedite beneficial interventions.

Thrombelastography and transfusion patterns in severely injured pediatric trauma patients with blunt solid organ injuries.

BACKGROUND: Thrombelastography (TEG) has emerged as a useful tool to diagnose coagulopathy and guide blood product usage during trauma resuscitations. This study sought to evaluate the correlation between TEG-directed blood product administration in severely injured pediatric trauma patients with blunt solid organ injuries (BSOIs). METHODS: Patients (≤18 years) with severe BSOIs who presented as highest-level trauma activations at two pediatric trauma centers were included. Thrombelastography results were evaluated to determine indications for blood product administration and rates of TEG-directed resuscitation. Tetrachoric correlations and regression modeling were used to correlate TEG-directed resuscitation with clinical outcomes. RESULTS: Of 64 patients who met the inclusion criteria, 32.8% (21) had elevated R times and 23.4% (15) had shortened α angles. Maximum amplitude was shortened in 29.7% (19), and percent clot lysis 30 minutes after maximum amplitude that is >3% was seen in 17.0% (9). Thrombelastography-directed resuscitation of fresh frozen plasma was followed 54.7% of the time compared with 67.2% and 81.2% for platelets and cryoprecipitate, respectively. Thrombelastography-directed resuscitation with platelets (odds ratio, 0.56; 95% confidence interval, 0.33-0.93; p = 0.03) and/or cryoprecipitate (odds ratio, 0.09; 95% confidence interval, 0.01-0.42, p = 0.003) were associated with decreased hospital length of stay and mortality, respectively. CONCLUSION: Severely injured pediatric trauma patients with BSOIs were often coagulopathic upon presentation to the emergency department. Thrombelastography-directed resuscitation with platelets and/or cryoprecipitate was followed for the majority of patients and was associated with improved outcomes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic/Care Management, level III.

Improved identification of severely injured pediatric trauma patients using reverse shock index multiplied by Glasgow Coma Scale.

BACKGROUND: The shock index pediatric age-adjusted (SIPA) predicts the need for increased resources and mortality among pediatric trauma patients without incorporating neurological status. A new scoring tool, rSIG, which is the reverse shock index (rSI) multiplied by the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), has been proven superior at predicting outcomes in adult trauma patients and mortality in pediatric patients compared with traditional scoring systems. We sought to compare the accuracy of rSIG to Shock Index (SI) and SIPA in predicting the need for early interventions in civilian pediatric trauma patients. METHODS: Patients (aged 1-18 years) in the 2014 to 2018 Pediatric Trauma Quality Improvement Program database with complete heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and total GCS were included. Optimal cut points of rSIG were calculated for predicting blood transfusion within 4 hours, intubation, intracranial pressure monitoring, and intensive care unit admission. From the optimal thresholds, sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve were calculated from receiver operating characteristics analyses to predict each outcome and compared with SI and SIPA. RESULTS: A total of 604,931 patients with a mean age of 11.1 years old were included. A minority of patients had a penetrating injury mechanism (5.6%) and the mean Injury Severity Score was 7.6. The mean SI and rSIG scores were 0.85 and 18.6, respectively. Reverse shock index multiplied by Glasgow Coma Scale performed better than SI and SIPA at predicting early trauma outcomes for the overall population, regardless of age. CONCLUSION: Reverse shock index multiplied by Glasgow Coma Scale outperformed SI and SIPA in the early identification of traumatically injured children at risk for early interventions, such as blood transfusion within 4 hours, intubation, intracranial pressure monitoring, and intensive care unit admission. Reverse shock index multiplied by Glasgow Coma Scale adds neurological status in initial patient assessment and may be used as a bedside triage tool to rapidly identify pediatric patients who will likely require early intervention and higher levels of care. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic, level III.