[Diagnostic criteria for obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in adolescent]. / Critères diagnostiques des troubles respiratoires obstructifs du sommeil de l'adolescent.

The obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS) affects 1-4% of adolescents. It represents a transitional stage between paediatric and adult OSA and is characterized by specific symptoms. BACKGROUND: The persistence of childhood OSAS during adolescence is not frequent. Risk factors are male sex, obesity and a history of tonsillectomy or adenoidectomy. Symptoms may be misleading such as tiredness and depressive disorders. In adolescence, untreated OSAS may result in neuro-behavioural and cognitive deficits, systemic inflammation, cardiovascular and metabolic disorders. The French Society of Research and Sleep Medicine organized a meeting on OSAS in adolescents. A multidisciplinary group of specialists (pulmonologists, pediatricians, ENT and maxillo-facial surgeons, dentofacial orthopedists/orthodontists, myofunctional therapists and sleep specialists) exchanged their experience, discussed publications and drew up a consensus document on the diagnosis and polysomnographic criteria for OSAS in adolescents. They proposed a practical diagnostic guideline and follow-up for these adolescents. OUTLOOK AND CONCLUSION: A good knowledge of the particularities of this pathology by the physician will lead to an early diagnosis, propose adapted multifactorial treatments and avoid the deleterious consequences of this pathology at adult age.

Pediatric lung function testing during a pandemic: An international perspective.

The COVID pandemic has passed its first peak for now in many countries while some are still on the rise, with some facing a second wave of cases. Precautions and infection control measures for both pediatric and adult pulmonary function testing (PFT) have been a topic of debate during the pandemic. Many centers had to close their PFT laboratories during the initial periods of the pandemic and are reopening as the numbers of new cases are decreasing. This review aims to summarize different practices of PFT laboratory management in different countries, including patient appointments, personal protective equipment, testing room requirements and telemedicine during and immediately following the COVID pandemic.

[Rebreathing method for measuring CO transfer factor in children]. / Mesure de la capacité de transfert du CO par la méthode de réinspiration chez l'enfant.

INTRODUCTION: The reference technique to measure the diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide (DLco) is the single-breath method (sb). For patients unable to perform this method, the rebreathing method (rb) can be used. However, the clinical relevance of DLCOrb has not been evaluated. The aim of this study was to assess the feasibility of the rb method in children seen in a clinical setting and its relationships with sb method. SUBJECTS AND METHOD: We prospectively included children referred for 1) a suspected or confirmed interstitial lung disease (ILD group) (DLCOsb and DLCOrb measurements) ; 2) controlled asthma with normal lung function (DLCOrb measurements to derive DLCOrb/KCOrb expected values). DLCOrb was computed from the decrease in CO and Helium concentrations during tidal breathing in a rebreathing bag. RESULTS: Data on DLCOrb measurements were available for 53 (91%) children in the ILD group and 48 (91%) control children (mean (range) 11.5 (4.3-18.2) and 9.5 (4-17) years ; respectively). In the ILD group, high or moderate correlations were found between raw DLCOrb and DLCOsb values (rhô=0.82 ; P<0.0001) and between KCOrb and KCOsb (rhô=0.62 ; P<0.0001), respectively. Results expressed as percentage predicted were moderately correlated (rhô=0.55 ; P=0.0003 for DLCO ; rhô=0.51 ; P=0.001 for KCO). CONCLUSION: DLCOrb is easy to perform in children and gives values that are highly correlated to DCLOsb. Our preliminary results are in favour of a possible clinical use after further validation.

[Guidelines for methacholine provocation testing]. / Recommandations pour le test de provocation bronchique à la méthacholine en pratique clinique, à partir de l'âge scolaire.

Bronchial challenge with the direct bronchoconstrictor agent methacholine is commonly used for the diagnosis of asthma. The "Lung Function" thematic group of the French Pulmonology Society (SPLF) elaborated a series of guidelines for the performance and the interpretation of methacholine challenge testing, based on French clinical guideline methodology. Specifically, guidelines are provided with regard to the choice of judgment criteria, the management of deep inspirations, and the role of methacholine bronchial challenge in the care of asthma, exercise-induced asthma, and professional asthma.

[Digital action plan for asthma exacerbations (PANAME)]. / Plan d'action numérique pour l'asthme en exacerbation : PANAME.

BACKGROUND: A written action plan (WAP) reduces emergency visits for asthma exacerbations. However, a WAP is underused and often focused on asthma control. The innovation is an AppWeb that includes an expert software aimed at diagnosing the level of severity of asthma exacerbations and delivering a personalized digital action plan (DAP) when patients are in urgent need of medical advice. Symptoms describing the level of severity of asthma exacerbations and the consequent treatments have been established by working groups of the French Respiratory Societies (SPLF and SP2A for adults and children, respectively). The main objective of the study is to evaluate the effect of the DAP on the frequency of urgent medical attendance. Secondary objectives are to evaluate adherence to the DAP compared to a WAP and the qualitative satisfaction of patients using the DAP. METHODOLOGY: A randomized, prospective, comparative, multicenter study on two parallel groups, conducted in private practice and in hospitals. In both arms, asthmatic patients (240 children aged 6 to 12 years and 270 adults aged 18 to 50 years) with severe asthma exacerbation(s) during the previous year and an Internet connection via a smartphone or a tablet computer, will have at their disposal a WAP and one arm will have, in addition, the DAP. Included patients will be followed up every three months for one year. EXPECTED RESULTS: A decrease in the number of urgent medical attendances and better adherence in the WAP+DAP group compared to the WAP group.

[Diagnostic criteria for obstructive sleep apnea syndrome]. / Critères diagnostiques du syndrome d'apnées obstructives du sommeil.

The prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) is 1-4 % in school-aged children. Adenotonsillar hypertrophy is the most common etiology of OSAS in children. Other causes are obesity; facial or skeletal malformations; and neuromuscular, respiratory, or metabolic diseases. OSAS has been associated with sleep quality disturbance (frequent arousals) and nocturnal gas exchange abnormalities (hypoxemia and sometimes hypercapnia), which can both result in negative health outcomes. The analysis of clinical symptoms and physical examination cannot always distinguish between children with primary snoring and children with OSAS. However, the association of at least one sign of nocturnal upper airway obstruction with other diurnal or nocturnal symptoms can be sufficient to establish OSAS diagnosis in a child more than 3 years of age with clear enlarged tonsils but who is otherwise healthy. In all other cases, polysomnography (the gold standard for the diagnosis of sleep-disordered breathing) must be performed either to declare the diagnosis when clinical assessment is not conclusive or when risk factors are present, or to follow up children with an associated health condition or initial severe OSAS. The equipment used to record sleep and the interpretation criteria are all pediatric-specific. Other methods, such as respiratory polygraphy, are simpler to implement, but further studies are warranted to validate the interpretation criteria of these methods in children. However, in centers with experienced personnel, polygraphy can be used in place of polysomnography. In all cases, the analysis of sleep traces must be manual and performed by personnel under the supervision of medical staff trained to interpret pediatric sleep studies.

[Underdiagnosed asthma in third-grade children]. / Sous-diagnostic de l'asthme chez les enfants en classe de CE2.

Undiagnosed asthma has been poorly studied before adolescence since it can go unnoticed by parents and doctors. Moreover, it is unusual to look for undiagnosed asthma by directly questioning children on the presence of current respiratory symptoms. Epidemiologic studies show that more adolescents quote symptoms suggestive of asthma than the prevalence of doctor-diagnosed asthma, but respiratory symptoms compatible with asthma remain undetected by parents of younger children more frequently than doctors diagnose asthma in their children. We attempted to evaluate the relevance of a questionnaire used since 2011 by school doctors in Paris to detect asthma. In this questionnaire, the family history of atopy and asthma were completed by the parents when they met the school doctor (last year of preschool) and questions on current respiratory symptoms were answered by third-grade children seen alone by the school doctor. One hundred and thirty-one children out of 1135 children questioned had a positive questionnaire for suspected asthma. In three-quarters of the cases, questionnaires were positive based on the children's answers on their respiratory symptoms (without a positive answer on personal or family history being necessary). The outcome of 41 children screened by the questionnaire was known. Twenty (49%) children had received a final diagnosis of asthma, of whom 12 were put on asthma controllers. Among these 20 children, two children underwent lung function testing and two others underwent tests for allergy. In eight children, tests had been requested by the child's GP, but no final diagnosis was reported by the parents. None of the 13 children in whom asthma was ruled out had any test performed. It was concluded that it is possible to detect undiagnosed asthma in children as young as 8 years by directly asking them about their respiratory symptoms. The knowledge of personal and family history can improve screening for asthma in these children. A more thorough evaluation of all children with a positive questionnaire is necessary to better understand the properties of the questionnaire. Finally, the best way to implement this screening program remains to be established (school health, GPs).

Sarcoidosis in children: HRCT findings and correlation with pulmonary function tests.

RATIONALE: High-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) plays an important role in the diagnosis and staging of pulmonary sarcoidosis, but implies radiation exposure. In this light, we aimed to describe HRCT findings as well as their relationship with pulmonary function tests (PFT) in children with pulmonary sarcoidosis. METHODS: In a retrospective study, 18 pediatric patients with sarcoidosis, including 12 with pulmonary abnormalities (PA group) and 6 without pulmonary abnormalities (APA group) were followed over a 16-year period. Relationships between HRCT scores and PFT were studied by non-parametric Spearman's test at diagnosis and by restricted maximum likelihood (REML) analysis during follow-up. RESULTS: Forty-three HRCT were scored. Twelve patients showed abnormal HRCT findings at diagnosis with multiple nodules or micronodules, while ground-glass opacities were seen in 11 patients. Ten patients exhibited pleural thickening or thickening of the fissure and 6 had interlobular septal thickening at diagnosis. No correlation between HRCT and forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in 1 sec (FEV1), forced expiratory flow during the mid-half of the FVC (FEF(25-75)) and specific dynamical compliance (SpecC(Ldyn)) was found at diagnosis. However, linear mixed models showed that changes in total HRCT scores over time were significantly associated with SpecC(Ldyn), FVC, and FEV1 modifications. CONCLUSION: Radiologic findings in children with pulmonary sarcoidosis were similar to those in adults. HRCT and PFT are both essential investigations at diagnosis; however, the correlation between HRCT pulmonary parenchymal findings and PFT over time suggests the possibility of reducing the number of HRCT during follow-up to decrease unnecessary radiation exposure.

[Recommendations for pediatric oxygen therapy in acute and chronic settings: Needs assessment, implementation criteria, prescription practices and follow-up]. / Recommandations pour l'oxygénothérapie chez l'enfant en situations aiguës et chroniques : évaluation du besoin, critères de mise en route, modalités de prescriptions et de surveillance.

Recommendations for acute and long-term oxygen therapy (needs assessment, implementation criteria, prescription practices, and follow-up) in children were produced by the Groupe de Recherche sur les Avancées en Pneumo-Pédiatrie (GRAPP) under the auspices of the French Paediatric Pulmonology and Allergology Society (SP2A). The Haute Autorité de Santé (HAS) methodology, based on the Formalized Consensus, was used. A first panel of experts analyzed the English and French literature to provide a second panel of experts with recommendations to validate. Only the recommendations are presented here, but the full text (arguments+recommendations) is available at the website of the French Paediatric Society: www.sfpediatrie.com.

[Screening: from prescription to interpretation in children's obstructive sleep apnea syndrome]. / Explorer : de la prescription à l'interprétation : exploration du syndrome d'apnée du sommeil de l'enfant.

The supply and the demand for sleep recording in children are increasing. With no lower age limit, obstructive sleep apnea syndrome can be diagnosed in a lab run by a staff trained in conducting and interpreting children's sleep traces recorded with an adapted material. Whichever the criteria used to quote respiratory events, a relevant diagnosis is performed using both clinical presentation and results of sleep traces.

[Recommendations for pediatric oxygen therapy in acute and chronic settings: needs assessment, implementation criteria, prescription practices and follow-up]. / Recommandations pour l'oxygénothérapie chez l'enfant en situations aiguës et chroniques : évaluation du besoin, critères de mise en route, modalités de prescription et de surveillance.

Recommendations for acute and long-term oxygen therapy (needs assessment, implementation criteria, prescription practices, and follow-up) in children were produced by the Groupe de Recherche sur les Avancées en Pneumo-Pédiatrie (GRAPP) under the auspices of the French Paediatric Pulmonology and Allergology Society (SP2A). The Haute Autorité de Santé (HAS) methodology, based on the Formalized Consensus, was used. A first panel of experts analyzed the English and French literature to provide a second panel of experts with recommendations to validate. Only the recommendations are presented here, but the full text (arguments+recommendations) is available at the website of the French Paediatric Society: www.sfpediatrie.com.

[PFTing in children aged 3-5 years : which material, which measurements]. / Epreuves fonctionnelles respiratoires de l'enfant de 3 à 5 ans : quel matériel, quelles mesures ?

Lung function testing in children 3 to 5years of age is possible using equipment and techniques suitable for this age group. The use of different techniques will depend on the child's ability as well as on the technician's skill to use specific techniques. This review will detail the techniques that are easily available for routine lung function assessment in private practice or in hospital laboratory.

Reference ranges for interrupter resistance technique: the Asthma UK Initiative.

Measuring interrupter resistance (R(int)) is an increasingly popular lung function technique and especially suitable for preschool children because it is simple, quick and requires only passive cooperation. A European Respiratory Society (ERS)/American Thoracic Society (ATS) Task Force recently published empirical recommendations related to procedures, limitations and interpretation of the technique. However, for valid interpretation, high-quality reference equations are required and these have been lacking. The aim of the present study was to collate R(int) data from healthy children in order to produce more robust reference equations. A further aim was to examine the influence of methodological differences on predicted R(int) values. R(int) data from healthy children were collected from published and unpublished sources. Reference equations for expiratory and inspiratory R(int) were developed using the LMS (lambda, mu, sigma) method. Data from 1,090 children (51% males) aged 3-13 yrs were collated to construct sex-specific reference equations for expiratory R(int) and data from 629 children (51% males) were collated for inspiratory R(int). Height was the best independent predictor of both expiratory and inspiratory R(int). Differences between centres were clinically irrelevant, and differences between ethnic groups could not be examined. The availability of a large and generalisable sample and the use of modern statistical techniques enabled the development of more appropriate reference equations for R(int) in young children.

Multicentre trial evaluating alveolar NO fraction as a marker of asthma control and severity.

BACKGROUND: Exhaled NO can be partitioned in its bronchial and alveolar sources, and the latter may increase in the presence of recent asthmatic symptoms and in refractory asthma. The aim of this multicentre prospective study was to assess whether alveolar NO fraction and FE(NO) could be associated with the level of asthma control and severity both at the time of measurement and in the subsequent 3 months. METHODS: Asthma patients older than 10 years, nonsmokers, without recent exacerbation and under regular treatment, underwent exhaled NO measurement at multiple constant flows allowing its partition in alveolar (with correction for back-diffusion) and bronchial origins based on a two-compartment model of NO exchange; exhaled NO fraction at 50 ml/s (FE(NO,0.05)) was also recorded. On inclusion, severity was assessed using the four Global initiative for asthma (GINA) classes and control using Asthma Control Questionnaire (ACQ). Participants were followed-up for 12 weeks, control being assessed by short-ACQ on 1st, 4th, 8th and 12th week. RESULTS: Two-hundred patients [107 children and 93 adults, median age (25th; 75th percentile) 16 years (12; 38)], 165 receiving inhaled corticosteroid, were included in five centres. The two-compartment model was valid in 175/200 patients (87.5%). Alveolar NO and FE(NO,0.05) did not correlate to control on inclusion or follow-up (either with ACQ /short-ACQ values or their changes), nor was influenced by severity classes. Alveolar NO negatively correlated to MEF(25-75%) (rho = -0.22, P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Alveolar and exhaled NO fractions are not indexes of control or severity in asthmatic children and adults under treatment.

Respiratory medicines for children: current evidence, unlicensed use and research priorities.

This European Respiratory Society task force has reviewed the evidence for paediatric medicines in respiratory disease occurring in adults and children. We describe off-licence use, research priorities and ongoing studies. Off-licence and off-label prescribing in children is widespread and potentially harmful. Research areas in asthma include novel formulations and regimens, and individualised prescribing. In cystic fibrosis, future studies will focus on screened infants and robust outcome measures are needed. Other areas include new enzyme and antibiotic formulations and the basic defect. Research into pneumonia should include evaluation of new antibacterials and regimens, rapid diagnostic tests and, in pleural infection, antibiotic penetration, fibrinolytics and surveillance. In uncommon conditions, such as primary ciliary dyskinesia, congenital pulmonary abnormalities or neuromuscular disorders, drugs indicated for other conditions (e.g. dornase alfa) are commonly used and trials are needed. In neuromuscular disorders, the beta-agonists may enhance muscle strength and are in need of evaluation. Studies of antibiotic prophylaxis, immunoglobulin and antifungal drugs are needed in immune deficiency. We hope that this summary of the evidence for respiratory medicines in children, highlighting gaps and research priorities, will be useful for the pharmaceutical industry, the paediatric committee of the European Medicines Agency, academic investigators and the lay public.

Inter-observer agreement between physicians, nurses, and respiratory therapists for respiratory clinical evaluation in bronchiolitis.

Care providers for children with bronchiolitis use various tools to evaluate respiratory status. The use of a single tool by different types of care provider requires a high level of inter-observer agreement, an aspect rarely studied. This study, involving 82 physicians, nurses, and respiratory therapists aimed to evaluate inter-observer agreement for clinical evaluations in children hospitalized for a first episode of bronchiolitis. Respiratory evaluation included three frequently reported parameters of respiratory status: respiratory rate, retraction signs, and wheezing. The frequency of concordance for observers from the same and from different care provider groups was assessed using a weighted kappa statistic and considering all possible combinations of care providers. We also calculated inter-provider agreement as a function of patient age, regardless of care provider type. Overall inter-observer agreement for all provider pairs was 93.1%, with a weighted kappa statistic of 0.72 (95% CI, 0.66-0.78), indicating substantial agreement, with no difference as a function of pair composition. Inter-observer agreements for the various age groups ranged from 87% to 93%, with kappa scores ranging from 0.62 to 0.78. We conclude that a simple clinical evaluation for respiratory status assessment has a high level of inter-observer agreement within and between physicians, nurses and respiratory therapists. Thus, once the validity of this test has been confirmed in a large population sample, it should be possible to use this test to monitor children hospitalized with bronchiolitis and as an endpoint in clinical trials.

[Intricated asthma tracheomalacia: diagnosis and therapeutic aspects]. / Asthme et trachéomalacie associés: aspects diagnostiques et thérapeutiques.

An asthmatic girl was first hospitalized at age 2(9/12) years because of dyspnoea, lung consolidations and/or atelectasis, and rattling. Between ages 2(9/12) and 6(2/12) years, she required three hospitalizations in ICU out of nine hospitalizations for the same symptoms. Differential diagnosis of this difficult to treat asthma disclosed severe tracheomalacia and persistent asthma. Treatments given according to the clinical, radiological and functional findings failed to decrease frequency and severity of acute respiratory episodes. Eventually, positive pressure ventilation delivered at airway opening (via a mouthpiece) associated to active respiratory physiotherapy succeeded in removing atelectasis and quickly cured the five following acute episodes without any further hospitalization. This case report is about diagnosis procedure, intricate asthma and tracheomalacia, and open mind to unusual therapeutics that may disclose potential help.

[Pneumonia with empyema during varicella]. / Pleuropneumopathie bactérienne en cours de varicelle.

UNLABELLED: Chicken pox is usually considered a benign viral affection; however, possible infectious complications are observed. Although cutaneous infections are well described, bacterial pneumonia with empyema is more exceptionally reported. PURPOSE: To describe the clinical characteristics of bacterial pneumonia with empyema associated with chicken pox. METHODS: This descriptive multicenter retrospective study was based on a questionnaire sent by Internet to 30 French pediatric and pediatric respiratory hospital wards. RESULTS: We found 4 cases of children (mean age, 19 months) presenting during the chicken pox eruption concomitant bacterial pneumonia with empyema. The average time of diagnosis was 4.5 days after the beginning of the eruption. All the children were febrile and had an average pulsed oxygen saturation of 87%. The inflammatory syndrome was constant with a mean C reactive protein of 253 mg/l. Group A Streptococcus was identified in 3 cases out of 4. Admission to an intensive care unit was necessary for 3 children, 1 of them requiring mechanical ventilation. No clinical or radiological sequelae were observed during the complete year of follow-up. CONCLUSION: Bacterial pneumoniae with empyema are not current complications of chicken pox but have to be sought when prolonged fever and/or alteration of the health status occurs during chicken pox eruption.

[Methacholine challenge in young children: measurement of resistance by interruption]. / Test a la métacholine chez le jeune enfant: Mesure de la résistance par interruption.

The aims of this study were 1. To evaluate the measurement of resistance by interruption (Rint) of bronchoconstriction induced by inhalation of methacholine and 2. To determine a threshold of increase of resistance in young children to differentiate responders from non-responders. Forty-six children (mean age 5 [4.3-6.1] years) referred for methacholine challenge were tested by measurement of Rint and transcutaneous oxygen tension. A fall of 20% or more in oxygen tension from the baseline was used to define the responders. The children studied had a baseline Rint significantly higher than normal (0.84 [0.68-1.01] vs. 0.76 [0.60-0.90] kPa L(-1)s; p < 0.03). Forty-one children were responders and had an increase in Rint significantly different from the non-responders (p < 0/04). An increase in Rint of 35% distinguished responders from non-responders in young children with chronic cough. Interrupter resistance increases significantly during bronchial provocation in responding young children and may be used to measure the degree of bronchoconstriction.