LIF signaling regulates outer radial glial to interneuron fate during human cortical development.

Radial glial (RG) development is essential for cerebral cortex growth and organization. In humans, the outer radial glia (oRG) subtype is expanded and gives rise to diverse neurons and glia. However, the mechanisms regulating oRG differentiation are unclear. oRG cells express leukemia-inhibitory factor (LIF) receptors during neurogenesis, and consistent with a role in stem cell self-renewal, LIF perturbation impacts oRG proliferation in cortical tissue and organoids. Surprisingly, LIF treatment also increases the production of inhibitory interneurons (INs) in cortical cultures. Comparative transcriptomic analysis identifies that the enhanced IN population resembles INs produced in the caudal ganglionic eminence. To evaluate whether INs could arise from oRGs, we isolated primary oRG cells and cultured them with LIF. We observed the production of INs from oRG cells and an increase in IN abundance following LIF treatment. Our observations suggest that LIF signaling regulates the capacity of oRG cells to generate INs.

A cross-species proteomic map reveals neoteny of human synapse development.

The molecular mechanisms and evolutionary changes accompanying synapse development are still poorly understood1,2. Here we generate a cross-species proteomic map of synapse development in the human, macaque and mouse neocortex. By tracking the changes of more than 1,000 postsynaptic density (PSD) proteins from midgestation to young adulthood, we find that PSD maturation in humans separates into three major phases that are dominated by distinct pathways. Cross-species comparisons reveal that human PSDs mature about two to three times slower than those of other species and contain higher levels of Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factors (RhoGEFs) in the perinatal period. Enhancement of RhoGEF signalling in human neurons delays morphological maturation of dendritic spines and functional maturation of synapses, potentially contributing to the neotenic traits of human brain development. In addition, PSD proteins can be divided into four modules that exert stage- and cell-type-specific functions, possibly explaining their differential associations with cognitive functions and diseases. Our proteomic map of synapse development provides a blueprint for studying the molecular basis and evolutionary changes of synapse maturation.

The mitochondrial derived peptide humanin is a regulator of lifespan and healthspan.

Humanin is a member of a new family of peptides that are encoded by short open reading frames within the mitochondrial genome. It is conserved in animals and is both neuroprotective and cytoprotective. Here we report that in C. elegans the overexpression of humanin is sufficient to increase lifespan, dependent on daf-16/Foxo. Humanin transgenic mice have many phenotypes that overlap with the worm phenotypes and, similar to exogenous humanin treatment, have increased protection against toxic insults. Treating middle-aged mice twice weekly with the potent humanin analogue HNG, humanin improves metabolic healthspan parameters and reduces inflammatory markers. In multiple species, humanin levels generally decline with age, but here we show that levels are surprisingly stable in the naked mole-rat, a model of negligible senescence. Furthermore, in children of centenarians, who are more likely to become centenarians themselves, circulating humanin levels are much greater than age-matched control subjects. Further linking humanin to healthspan, we observe that humanin levels are decreased in human diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and MELAS (Mitochondrial Encephalopathy, Lactic Acidosis, and Stroke-like episodes). Together, these studies are the first to demonstrate that humanin is linked to improved healthspan and increased lifespan.

Atorvastatin therapy during the peri-infarct period attenuates left ventricular dysfunction and remodeling after myocardial infarction.

Although statins impart a number of cardiovascular benefits, whether statin therapy during the peri-infarct period improves subsequent myocardial structure and function remains unclear. Thus, we evaluated the effects of atorvastatin on cardiac function, remodeling, fibrosis, and apoptosis after myocardial infarction (MI). Two groups of rats were subjected to permanent coronary occlusion. Group II (n = 14) received oral atorvastatin (10 mg/kg/d) daily for 3 wk before and 4 wk after MI, while group I (n = 12) received equivalent doses of vehicle. Infarct size (Masson's trichrome-stained sections) was similar in both groups. Compared with group I, echocardiographic left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and fractional area change (FAC) were higher while LV end-diastolic volume (LVEDV) and LV end-systolic and end-diastolic diameters (LVESD and LVEDD) were lower in treated rats. Hemodynamically, atorvastatin-treated rats exhibited significantly higher dP/dt(max), end-systolic elastance (Ees), and preload recruitable stroke work (PRSW) and lower LV end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP). Morphometrically, infarct wall thickness was greater in treated rats. The improvement of LV function by atorvastatin was associated with a decrease in hydroxyproline content and in the number of apoptotic cardiomyocyte nuclei. We conclude that atorvastatin therapy during the peri-infarct period significantly improves LV function and limits adverse LV remodeling following MI independent of a reduction in infarct size. These salubrious effects may be due in part to a decrease in myocardial fibrosis and apoptosis.

The cardioprotection of the late phase of ischemic preconditioning is enhanced by postconditioning via a COX-2-mediated mechanism in conscious rats.

The present study sought to determine whether the combination of late preconditioning (PC) with postconditioning enhances the reduction in infarct size. Chronically instrumented rats were assigned to a 45-min (subset 1) or 60-min (subset 2) coronary occlusion followed by 24 h of reperfusion. In each subset, rats received no further intervention (control) or were preconditioned 24 h before occlusion (PC), postconditioned at the onset of reperfusion following occlusion, or preconditioned and postconditioned without (PC + postconditioning) or with the COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib (3 mg/kg ip; PC + postconditioning + celecoxib) 10 min before postconditioning. Myocardial cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein expression and COX-2 activity (assessed as myocardial levels of PGE(2)) were measured 6 min after reperfusion in an additional five groups (control, PC, postconditioning, PC + postconditioning, and PC + postconditioning + celecoxib) subjected to a 45-min occlusion. PC alone reduced infarct size after a 45-min occlusion but not after a 60-min occlusion. Postconditioning alone did not reduce infarct size in either setting. However, the combination of late PC and postconditioning resulted in a robust infarct-sparing effect in both settings, suggesting additive cardioprotection. Celecoxib completely abrogated the infarct-sparing effect of the combined interventions in both settings. Late PC increased COX-2 protein expression and PGE(2) content. PGE(2) content (but not COX-2 protein) was further increased by the combination of both interventions, suggesting that postconditioning increases the activity of COX-2 induced by late PC. In conclusion, the combination of late PC and postconditioning produces additive protection, likely due to a postconditioning-induced enhancement of COX-2 activity.

Cardioprotection by postconditioning in conscious rats is limited to coronary occlusions <45 min.

OBJECTIVES: Brief episodes of ischemia and reperfusion after a lethal ischemic insult confer cardioprotection, a phenomenon termed "ischemic postconditioning." However, all studies reported to date have been conducted in open-chest animal models. We sought to determine whether postconditioning occurs in conscious animals and whether it protects against severe myocardial injury. METHODS: Chronically instrumented rats were assigned to a 30- (Subset 1), 45- (Subset 2), or 60-min (Subset 3) coronary occlusion followed by 24 h of reperfusion. In each subset, rats received no further intervention (control), were preconditioned with 12 cycles of 2-min occlusion/2-min reperfusion immediately (early preconditioning; EPC) or 24 h (late preconditioning; LPC) before myocardial infarction, or were postconditioned with 20 cycles of 10-s occlusion/10-s reperfusion immediately after myocardial infarction (20-10 PostC). RESULTS: With a 30-min occlusion, infarct size (54.4 +/- 2.3% of risk region in control-30) was significantly reduced in EPC-30, LPC-30, and 20-10 PostC-30 groups (by 72, 70, and 47%, respectively; all P < 0.05 vs. control-30). With a 45-min occlusion, infarct size (62.2 +/- 2.4% in control-45) was reduced in EPC-45 and LPC-45 groups (by 47 and 41%, respectively; all P < 0.05 vs. control-45) but not in the 20-10 PostC-45 group [55.4 +/- 2.3%, P = not significant (NS) vs. control-45]. With a 60-min occlusion, infarct size (72.7 +/- 2.2% in control-60) was reduced in the EPC-60 (by 20%, P < 0.05) but not in the LPC-60 (63.6 +/- 2.5%, P = NS) or in the 20-20 PostC group (71.5 +/- 3.4%, P = NS). CONCLUSIONS: Both early and late ischemic preconditioning as well as ischemic postconditioning confer protection in conscious rats; however, unlike early preconditioning, postconditioning protects only against coronary occlusions <45 min. In the conscious rat, the cardioprotection afforded by postconditioning is limited to mild to moderate myocardial injury.