The alternative coproporphyrinogen III oxidase (CgoN) catalyzes the oxygen-independent conversion of coproporphyrinogen III into coproporphyrin III.

Nature utilizes three distinct pathways to synthesize the essential enzyme cofactor heme. The coproporphyrin III-dependent pathway, predominantly present in Bacillaceae, employs an oxygen-dependent coproporphyrinogen III oxidase (CgoX) that converts coproporphyrinogen III into coproporphyrin III. In this study, we report the bioinformatic-based identification of a gene called ytpQ, encoding a putative oxygen-independent counterpart, which we propose to term CgoN, from Priestia (Bacillus) megaterium. The recombinantly produced, purified, and monomeric YtpQ (CgoN) protein is shown to catalyze the oxygen-independent conversion of coproporphyrinogen III into coproporphyrin III. Minimal non-enzymatic conversion of coproporphyrinogen III was observed under the anaerobic test conditions employed in this study. FAD was identified as a cofactor, and menadione served as an artificial acceptor for the six abstracted electrons, with a KM value of 3.95 µmol/L and a kcat of 0.63 per min for the substrate. The resulting coproporphyrin III, in turn, acts as an effective substrate for the subsequent enzyme of the pathway, the coproporphyrin III ferrochelatase (CpfC). Under aerobic conditions, oxygen directly serves as an electron acceptor, but is replaced by the more efficient action of menadione. An AlphaFold2 model of the enzyme suggests that YtpQ adopts a compact triangular shape consisting of three domains. The N-terminal domain appears to be flexible with respect to the rest of the structure, potentially creating a ligand binding site that opens and closes during the catalytic cycle. A catalytic mechanism similar to the oxygen-independent protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase PgoH1 (HemG), based on the flavin-dependent abstraction of six electrons from coproporphyrinogen III and their potential quinone-dependent transfer to a membrane-localized electron transport chain, is proposed.

Moonlighting Arabidopsis molybdate transporter 2 family and GSH-complex formation facilitate molybdenum homeostasis.

Molybdenum (Mo) as essential micronutrient for plants, acts as active component of molybdenum cofactor (Moco). Core metabolic processes like nitrate assimilation or abscisic-acid biosynthesis rely on Moco-dependent enzymes. Although a family of molybdate transport proteins (MOT1) is known to date in Arabidopsis, molybdate homeostasis remained unclear. Here we report a second family of molybdate transporters (MOT2) playing key roles in molybdate distribution and usage. KO phenotype-analyses, cellular and organ-specific localization, and connection to Moco-biosynthesis enzymes via protein-protein interaction suggest involvement in cellular import of molybdate in leaves and reproductive organs. Furthermore, we detected a glutathione-molybdate complex, which reveals how vacuolar storage is maintained. A putative Golgi S-adenosyl-methionine transport function was reported recently for the MOT2-family. Here, we propose a moonlighting function, since clear evidence of molybdate transport was found in a yeast-system. Our characterization of the MOT2-family and the detection of a glutathione-molybdate complex unveil the plant-wide way of molybdate.

Amyloid-like aggregation of recombinant ß-lactoglobulin at pH 3.5 and 7.0: Is disulfide bond removal the key to fibrillation?

Functional nanofibrils from globular proteins are usually formed by heating for several hours at pH 2.0, which induces acidic hydrolysis and consecutive self-association. The functional properties of these micro-metre-long anisotropic structures are promising for biodegradable biomaterials and food applications, but their stability at pH > 2.0 is low. The results presented here show that modified ß-lactoglobulin can also form nanofibrils by heating at neutral pH without prior acidic hydrolysis; the key is removing covalent disulfide bonds via precision fermentation. The aggregation behaviour of various recombinant ß-lactoglobulin variants was systemically studied at pH 3.5 and 7.0. The suppression of intra- and intermolecular disulfide bonds by eliminating one to three out of the five cysteines makes the non-covalent interactions more prevalent and allow for structural rearrangement. This stimulated the linear growth of worm-like aggregates. Full elimination of all five cysteines led to the transformation of worm-like aggregates into actual fibril structures (several hundreds of nanometres long) at pH 7.0. This understanding of the role of cysteine in protein-protein interactions will help to identify proteins and protein modifications to form functional aggregates at neutral pH.

Construction and Application of a Plasmid-Based Signal Peptide Library for Improved Secretion of Recombinant Proteins with Priestia megaterium.

The secretion of recombinant proteins plays an important role in their economic production and purification. The secretion efficiency depends on the responsible signal peptide (SP) in combination with the target protein and the given host and cannot be predicted so far. Due to its high plasmid stability, the lack of alkaline extracellular proteases and only few contaminating extracellular host proteins, Priestia megaterium provides a promising alternative to common Bacillus species. For the development of an easy and fast cloning and screening system to identify the SP best suited to a distinct protein, a plasmid-based SP library containing all predicted 182 Sec-dependent SPs from P. megaterium was established. The splitting of the SPs into 10 groups of individual multi-SP plasmids (pMSPs) allows their grouped amplification and application in screening approaches. The functionality of the whole library was demonstrated by enhancing the amount of the already well-secreted α-amylase AmyE by 1.6-fold. The secretion of a novel penicillin G acylase, which remained as insoluble protein inside the cells, as its native SP is unsuitable for secretion in P. megaterium, could be enhanced even up to 29-fold. Overall, only around 170 recombinant P. megaterium clones based on 50 inserted SPs had to be screened to achieve sufficient amounts for further enzyme characterizations. Thus, this newly developed plasmid-based genetic tool applicable for P. megaterium and also other Bacillus species facilitates the identification of suitable SPs for secretion of recombinant proteins.

Functionalization of an extended-gate field-effect transistor (EGFET) for bacteria detection.

Traditional sensing technologies have drawbacks as they are time-consuming, cost-intensive, and do not attain the required accuracy and reproducibility. Therefore, new methods of measurements are necessary to improve the detection of bacteria. Well-established electrical measurement methods can connect high sensitive sensing systems with biological requirements. One approach is to functionalize an extended-gate field-effect transistor's (EGFET) sensing area with modified porphyrins containing two different linkers. One linker connects the electrode surface with the porphyrin. The other linker bonds bacteria on the functional layer through a specific peptide chain. The negative charge on the surface of the cells regulates the surface potential which has an impact on the electrical behavior of the EGFET. The attendance of attached bacteria on the functionalized sensing area could successfully be detected.

The "beauty in the beast"-the multiple uses of Priestia megaterium in biotechnology.

Over 30 years, the Gram-positive bacterium Priestia megaterium (previously known as Bacillus megaterium) was systematically developed for biotechnological applications ranging from the production of small molecules like vitamin B12, over polymers like polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) up to the in vivo and in vitro synthesis of multiple proteins and finally whole-cell applications. Here we describe the use of the natural vitamin B12 (cobalamin) producer P. megaterium for the elucidation of the biosynthetic pathway and the subsequent systematic knowledge-based development for production purposes. The formation of PHB, a natural product of P. megaterium and potential petro-plastic substitute, is covered and discussed. Further important biotechnological characteristics of P. megaterium for recombinant protein production including high protein secretion capacity and simple cultivation on value-added carbon sources are outlined. This includes the advanced system with almost 30 commercially available expression vectors for the intracellular and extracellular production of recombinant proteins at the g/L scale. We also revealed a novel P. megaterium transcription-translation system as a complementary and versatile biotechnological tool kit. As an impressive biotechnology application, the formation of various cytochrome P450 is also critically highlighted. Finally, whole cellular applications in plant protection are completing the overall picture of P. megaterium as a versatile giant cell factory. KEY POINTS: • The use of Priestia megaterium for the biosynthesis of small molecules and recombinant proteins through to whole-cell applications is reviewed. • P. megaterium can act as a promising alternative host in biotechnological production processes.

Influence of L-lactate and low glucose concentrations on the metabolism and the toxin formation of Clostridioides difficile.

The virulence of Clostridioides difficile (formerly Clostridium difficile) is mainly caused by its two toxins A and B. Their formation is significantly regulated by metabolic processes. Here we investigated the influence of various sugars (glucose, fructose, mannose, trehalose), sugar derivatives (mannitol and xylitol) and L-lactate on toxin synthesis. Fructose, mannose, trehalose, mannitol and xylitol in the growth medium resulted in an up to 2.2-fold increase of secreted toxin. Low glucose concentration of 2 g/L increased the toxin concentration 1.4-fold compared to growth without glucose, while high glucose concentrations in the growth medium (5 and 10 g/L) led to up to 6.6-fold decrease in toxin formation. Transcriptomic and metabolic investigation of the low glucose effect pointed towards an inactive CcpA and Rex regulatory system. L-lactate (500 mg/L) significantly reduced extracellular toxin formation. Transcriptome analyses of the later process revealed the induction of the lactose utilization operon encoding lactate racemase (larA), electron confurcating lactate dehydrogenase (CDIF630erm_01321) and the corresponding electron transfer flavoprotein (etfAB). Metabolome analyses revealed L-lactate consumption and the formation of pyruvate. The involved electron confurcation process might be responsible for the also observed reduction of the NAD+/NADH ratio which in turn is apparently linked to reduced toxin release from the cell.

Metabolic Rearrangements Causing Elevated Proline and Polyhydroxybutyrate Accumulation During the Osmotic Adaptation Response of Bacillus megaterium.

For many years now, Bacillus megaterium serves as a microbial workhorse for the high-level production of recombinant proteins in the g/L-scale. However, efficient and stable production processes require the knowledge of the molecular adaptation strategies of the host organism to establish optimal environmental conditions. Here, we interrogated the osmotic stress response of B. megaterium using transcriptome, proteome, metabolome, and fluxome analyses. An initial transient adaptation consisted of potassium import and glutamate counterion synthesis. The massive synthesis of the compatible solute proline constituted the second longterm adaptation process. Several stress response enzymes involved in iron scavenging and reactive oxygen species (ROS) fighting proteins showed higher levels under prolonged osmotic stress induced by 1.8 M NaCl. At the same time, the downregulation of the expression of genes of the upper part of glycolysis resulted in the activation of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), generating an oversupply of NADPH. The increased production of lactate accompanied by the reduction of acetate secretion partially compensate for the unbalanced (NADH/NAD+) ratio. Besides, the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) mainly supplies the produced NADH, as indicated by the higher mRNA and protein levels of involved enzymes, and further confirmed by 13C flux analyses. As a consequence of the metabolic flux toward acetyl-CoA and the generation of an excess of NADPH, B. megaterium redirected the produced acetyl-CoA toward the polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) biosynthetic pathway accumulating around 30% of the cell dry weight (CDW) as PHB. This direct relation between osmotic stress and intracellular PHB content has been evidenced for the first time, thus opening new avenues for synthesizing this valuable biopolymer using varying salt concentrations under non-limiting nutrient conditions.

Quantification of microaerobic growth of Geobacter sulfurreducens.

Geobacter sulfurreducens was originally considered a strict anaerobe. However, this bacterium was later shown to not only tolerate exposure to oxygen but also to use it as terminal electron acceptor. Research performed has so far only revealed the general ability of G. sulfurreducens to reduce oxygen, but the oxygen uptake rate has not been quantified yet, nor has evidence been provided as to how the bacterium achieves oxygen reduction. Therefore, microaerobic growth of G. sulfurreducens was investigated here with better defined operating conditions as previously performed and a transcriptome analysis was performed to elucidate possible metabolic mechanisms important for oxygen reduction in G. sulfurreducens. The investigations revealed that cell growth with oxygen is possible to the same extent as with fumarate if the maximum specific oxygen uptake rate (sOUR) of 95 mgO2 gCDW-1 h-1 is not surpassed. Hereby, the entire amount of introduced oxygen is reduced. When oxygen concentrations are too high, cell growth is completely inhibited and there is no partial oxygen consumption. Transcriptome analysis suggests a menaquinol oxidase to be the enzyme responsible for oxygen reduction. Transcriptome analysis has further revealed three different survival strategies, depending on the oxygen concentration present. When prompted with small amounts of oxygen, G. sulfurreducens will try to escape the microaerobic area; if oxygen concentrations are higher, cells will focus on rapid and complete oxygen reduction coupled to cell growth; and ultimately cells will form protective layers if a complete reduction becomes impossible. The results presented here have important implications for understanding how G. sulfurreducens survives exposure to oxygen.

Complete Genome Sequence of Raoultella electrica 1GB (DSM 102253T), Isolated from Anodic Biofilms of a Glucose-Fed Microbial Fuel Cell.

The type strain Raoultella electrica 1GB (DSM 102253T) was isolated from anodic biofilms of glucose-fed microbial fuel cells. The fully assembled, closed, circular 5.27-Mb genome and corresponding 0.52-Mb plasmid DNA sequences were elucidated. Potential electron transfer and pathogenicity mechanisms were deduced.

Spray-Dried Hierarchical Aggregates of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Functionalization for Downstream Processing in Biotechnology.

In this work, the structuring of iron oxide nanoparticles via spray-drying (SD) of aqueous suspensions is investigated, leading to micrometer-sized aggregates with saturation magnetization comparable to that of the individual nanoparticles. Interestingly, the superparamagnetic behavior is retained despite the multicore structure. Modification of the aggregates via the addition of silica nanoparticles to the suspension allows for control of the resulting magnetization by adjusting the iron oxide content. Moreover, the morphology of the produced aggregates is gradually shifted from irregular inflated-like shapes in case of pure iron oxide aggregates to reach spherical structures when bringing the silica content to only 20%. The aggregates with different magnetization can be effectively separated in a simple column with an attached permanent magnet. Functionalization of pure iron oxide aggregates with a previously coupled ligand holding a nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA)-like moiety and subsequent loading with Ni2+ ions leads to the ability to bind 6-histidine (His6)-tagged target proteins via chelation complexes for magnetic separation. The application of the presented system for the purification of recombinant protein A in multiple cycles is shown. The recyclability of the separation system in combination with the high degree of magnetic separation is promising for future applications in the field of preparative in situ protein purification.

Crystal structures and protein engineering of three different penicillin G acylases from Gram-positive bacteria with different thermostability.

Penicillin G acylase (PGA) catalyzes the hydrolysis of penicillin G to 6-aminopenicillanic acid and phenylacetic acid, which provides the precursor for most semisynthetic penicillins. Most applications rely on PGAs from Gram-negative bacteria. Here we describe the first three crystal structures for PGAs from Gram-positive Bacilli and their utilization in protein engineering experiments for the manipulation of their thermostability. PGAs from Bacillus megaterium (BmPGA, Tm = 56.0 °C), Bacillus thermotolerans (BtPGA, Tm = 64.5 °C), and Bacillus sp. FJAT-27231 (FJAT-PGA, Tm = 74.3 °C) were recombinantly produced with B. megaterium, secreted, purified to apparent heterogeneity, and crystallized. Structures with resolutions of 2.20 Å (BmPGA), 2.27 Å (BtPGA), and 1.36 Å (FJAT-PGA) were obtained. They revealed high overall similarity, reflecting the high identity of up to approx. 75%. Notably, the active center displays a deletion of more than ten residues with respect to PGAs from Gram-negatives. This enlarges the substrate binding site and may indicate a different substrate spectrum. Based on the structures, ten single-chain FJAT-PGAs carrying artificial linkers were produced. However, in all cases, complete linker cleavage was observed. While thermostability remained in the wild-type range, the enzymatic activity dropped between 30 and 60%. Furthermore, four hybrid PGAs carrying subunits from two different enzymes were successfully produced. Their thermostabilities mostly lay between the values of the two mother enzymes. For one PGA increased, enzyme activity was observed. Overall, the three novel PGA structures combined with initial protein engineering experiments provide the basis for establishment of new PGA-based biotechnological processes.

Evolutionary model for the unequal segregation of high copy plasmids.

Plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA elements of microorganisms encoding beneficial genetic information. They were thought to be equally distributed to daughter cells during cell division. Here we use mathematical modeling to investigate the evolutionary stability of plasmid segregation for high-copy plasmids-plasmids that are present in up to several hundred copies per cell-carrying antibiotic resistance genes. Evolutionary stable strategies (ESS) are determined by numerical analysis of a plasmid-load structured population model. The theory predicts that the evolutionary stable segregation strategy of a cell depends on the plasmid copy number: For low and medium plasmid load, both daughters receive in average an equal share of plasmids, while in case of high plasmid load, one daughter obtains distinctively and systematically more plasmids. These findings are in good agreement with recent experimental results. We discuss the interpretation and practical consequences.

Metabolic Reprogramming of Clostridioides difficile During the Stationary Phase With the Induction of Toxin Production.

The obligate anaerobe, spore forming bacterium Clostridioides difficile (formerly Clostridium difficile) causes nosocomial and community acquired diarrhea often associated with antibiotic therapy. Major virulence factors of the bacterium are the two large clostridial toxins TcdA and TcdB. The production of both toxins was found strongly connected to the metabolism and the nutritional status of the growth environment. Here, we systematically investigated the changes of the gene regulatory, proteomic and metabolic networks of C. difficile 630Δerm underlying the adaptation to the non-growing state in the stationary phase. Integrated data from time-resolved transcriptome, proteome and metabolome investigations performed under defined growth conditions uncovered multiple adaptation strategies. Overall changes in the cellular processes included the downregulation of ribosome production, lipid metabolism, cold shock proteins, spermine biosynthesis, and glycolysis and in the later stages of riboflavin and coenzyme A (CoA) biosynthesis. In contrast, different chaperones, several fermentation pathways, and cysteine, serine, and pantothenate biosynthesis were found upregulated. Focusing on the Stickland amino acid fermentation and the central carbon metabolism, we discovered the ability of C. difficile to replenish its favored amino acid cysteine by a pathway starting from the glycolytic 3-phosphoglycerate via L-serine as intermediate. Following the growth course, the reductive equivalent pathways used were sequentially shifted from proline via leucine/phenylalanine to the central carbon metabolism first to butanoate fermentation and then further to lactate fermentation. The toxin production was found correlated mainly to fluxes of the central carbon metabolism. Toxin formation in the supernatant was detected when the flux changed from butanoate to lactate synthesis in the late stationary phase. The holistic view derived from the combination of transcriptome, proteome and metabolome data allowed us to uncover the major metabolic strategies that are used by the clostridial cells to maintain its cellular homeostasis and ensure survival under starvation conditions.

Rapid acquisition and model-based analysis of cell-free transcription-translation reactions from nonmodel bacteria.

Native cell-free transcription-translation systems offer a rapid route to characterize the regulatory elements (promoters, transcription factors) for gene expression from nonmodel microbial hosts, which can be difficult to assess through traditional in vivo approaches. One such host, Bacillus megaterium, is a giant Gram-positive bacterium with potential biotechnology applications, although many of its regulatory elements remain uncharacterized. Here, we have developed a rapid automated platform for measuring and modeling in vitro cell-free reactions and have applied this to B. megaterium to quantify a range of ribosome binding site variants and previously uncharacterized endogenous constitutive and inducible promoters. To provide quantitative models for cell-free systems, we have also applied a Bayesian approach to infer ordinary differential equation model parameters by simultaneously using time-course data from multiple experimental conditions. Using this modeling framework, we were able to infer previously unknown transcription factor binding affinities and quantify the sharing of cell-free transcription-translation resources (energy, ribosomes, RNA polymerases, nucleotides, and amino acids) using a promoter competition experiment. This allows insights into resource limiting-factors in batch cell-free synthesis mode. Our combined automated and modeling platform allows for the rapid acquisition and model-based analysis of cell-free transcription-translation data from uncharacterized microbial cell hosts, as well as resource competition within cell-free systems, which potentially can be applied to a range of cell-free synthetic biology and biotechnology applications.

Mini review: Recombinant production of tailored bio-pharmaceuticals in different Bacillus strains and future perspectives.

Bio-pharmaceuticals like antibodies, hormones and growth factors represent about one-fifth of commercial pharmaceuticals. Host candidates of growing interest for recombinant production of these proteins are strains of the genus Bacillus, long being established for biotechnological production of homologous and heterologous proteins. Bacillus strains benefit from development of efficient expression systems in the last decades and emerge as major industrial workhorses for recombinant proteins due to easy cultivation, non-pathogenicity and their ability to secrete recombinant proteins directly into extracellular medium allowing cost-effective downstream processing. Their broad product portfolio of pharmaceutically relevant recombinant proteins described in research include antibody fragments, growth factors, interferons and interleukins, insulin, penicillin G acylase, streptavidin and different kinases produced in various cultivation systems like microtiter plates, shake flasks and bioreactor systems in batch, fed-batch and continuous mode. To further improve production and secretion performance of Bacillus, bottlenecks and limiting factors concerning proteases, chaperones, secretion machinery or feedback mechanisms can be identified on different cell levels from genomics and transcriptomics via proteomics to metabolomics and fluxomics. For systematical identification of recurring patterns characteristic of given regulatory systems and key genetic targets, systems biology and omics-technology provide suitable and promising approaches, pushing Bacillus further towards industrial application for recombinant pharmaceutical protein production.

Selective manipulation of superparamagnetic nanoparticles for product purification and microfluidic diagnostics.

The needs of scalable product purification as well as the demand for sensitive diagnostics for highly dilute entities can be addressed with the utilization of tailored superparamagnetic nanoparticles. Recent developments have led to more efficient fluidic systems at different scales with suspended nanoparticles or nanoparticle aggregates. However, magnetic nanoparticle systems differ widely in properties and their applications are characterized by very specific challenges. This review summarizes advances in the synthesis of superparamagnetic particles and displays states and trends in research making use of these particles in biotechnological downstream processing and in biosensing.

Comprehensive comparison of in silico MS/MS fragmentation tools of the CASMI contest: database boosting is needed to achieve 93% accuracy.

In mass spectrometry-based untargeted metabolomics, rarely more than 30% of the compounds are identified. Without the true identity of these molecules it is impossible to draw conclusions about the biological mechanisms, pathway relationships and provenance of compounds. The only way at present to address this discrepancy is to use in silico fragmentation software to identify unknown compounds by comparing and ranking theoretical MS/MS fragmentations from target structures to experimental tandem mass spectra (MS/MS). We compared the performance of four publicly available in silico fragmentation algorithms (MetFragCL, CFM-ID, MAGMa+ and MS-FINDER) that participated in the 2016 CASMI challenge. We found that optimizing the use of metadata, weighting factors and the manner of combining different tools eventually defined the ultimate outcomes of each method. We comprehensively analysed how outcomes of different tools could be combined and reached a final success rate of 93% for the training data, and 87% for the challenge data, using a combination of MAGMa+, CFM-ID and compound importance information along with MS/MS matching. Matching MS/MS spectra against the MS/MS libraries without using any in silico tool yielded 60% correct hits, showing that the use of in silico methods is still important.

Recombinant production of the antibody fragment D1.3 scFv with different Bacillus strains.

BACKGROUND: Different strains of the genus Bacillus are versatile candidates for the industrial production and secretion of heterologous proteins. They can be cultivated quite easily, show high growth rates and are usually non-pathogenic and free of endo- and exotoxins. They have the ability to secrete proteins with high efficiency into the growth medium, which allows cost-effective downstream purification processing. Some of the most interesting and challenging heterologous proteins are recombinant antibodies and antibody fragments. They are important and suitable tools in medical research for analytics, diagnostics and therapy. The smallest conventional antibody fragment with high-affinity binding to an antigen is the single-chain fragment variable (scFv). Here, different strains of the genus Bacillus were investigated using diverse cultivation systems for their suitability to produce and secret a recombinant scFv. RESULTS: Extracellular production of lysozyme-specific scFv D1.3 was realized by constructing a plasmid with a xylose-inducible promoter optimized for Bacillus megaterium and the D1.3scFv gene fused to the coding sequence of the LipA signal peptide from B. megaterium. Functional scFv was successfully secreted with B. megaterium MS941, Bacillus licheniformis MW3 and the three Bacillus subtilis strains 168, DB431 and WB800N differing in the number of produced proteases. Starting with shake flasks (150 mL), the bioprocess was scaled down to microtiter plates (1250 µL) as well as scaled up to laboratory-scale bioreactors (2 L). The highest extracellular concentration of D1.3 scFv (130 mg L-1) and highest space-time-yield (8 mg L-1 h-1) were accomplished with B. subtilis WB800N, a strain deficient in eight proteases. These results were reproduced by the production and secretion of a recombinant penicillin G acylase (Pac). CONCLUSIONS: The genus Bacillus provides high potential microbial host systems for the secretion of challenging heterologous proteins like antibody fragments and large proteins at high titers. In this study, the highest extracellular concentration and space-time-yield of a recombinant antibody fragment for a Gram-positive bacterium so far was achieved. The successful interspecies use of the here-designed plasmid originally optimized for B. megaterium was demonstrated by two examples, an antibody fragment and a penicillin G acylase in up to five different Bacillus strains.